Experimental Determination of Proton Hardness Factors at Several Irradiation Facilities
P. Allport, F. Bogelspacher, K. Bruce, R. Canavan, A. Dierlamm, L. Gonella, P. Knights, I. Mateu, M. Moll, K. Nikolopoulos, B. Phoenix, T. Price, L. Ram, F. Rav… 展开作者
P. Allport, F. Bogelspacher, K. Bruce, R. Canavan, A. Dierlamm, L. Gonella, P. Knights, I. Mateu, M. Moll, K. Nikolopoulos, B. Phoenix, T. Price, L. Ram, F. Ravotti, C. Simpson-Allsop, C. Wood
The scheduled High Luminosity upgrade of the CERN Large Hadron Collider presents new challenges in terms of radiation hardness. As a consequence, campaigns to qualify the radiation hardness of detector sensors and components are undertaken worldwide. The effects of irradiation with beams of different particle species and energy, aiming to assess displacement damage in semiconductor devices, are communicated in terms of the equivalent 1 MeV neutron fluence, using the hardness factor for the conversion. In this work, the hardness factors for protons at three different kinetic energies have been measured by analysing the I-V and C-V characteristics of reverse biased diodes, pre- and post-irradiation. The sensors were irradiated at the MC40 Cyclotron of the University of Birmingham, the cyclotron at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, and the IRRAD proton facility at CERN, with the respective measured proton hardness factors being: 2.1 +/- 0.5 for 24 MeV, 2.2 +/- 0.4 for 23 MeV, and 0.62 +/- 0.04 for 23 GeV. The hardness factors currently used in these three facilities are in agreement with the presented measurements.
Progress in particle physics depends on a multitude of unique facilities and capabilities that enable to advance detector technologies. Among others, key facilities involve test beams and irradiation facilities, which allow users to test the performance and lifetime of their detectors under realistic conditions. Test beam facilities are particularly important for collider and neutrino detector applications, while irradiation facilities are crucial for collider as well as some space-based astro particle detectors. This contributed Snowmass paper aims to summarize existing test beam and irradiat…
The development of instrumentation to be operated in high-radiation environments is one of the main challenges in fundamental research. Besides space and nuclear applications, particle physics experiments also need radiation-hard devices. The focus of this paper is a new irradiation facility based on the medical cyclotron located at the Bern University Hospital (Insespital), which is used as a controlled 18 MeV proton source. The adjustable beam current allows for dose rate dependent characterisation over a large dynamic range, from 0.1 to 1000 Grad per hour. The beam can be tuned so that the …
In the future ATLAS Inner Tracker, each silicon strip module will be equipped with a switch able to separate the high voltage supply from the sensor in case the latter becomes faulty. The switch, placed in between the HV supply and the sensor, needs to sustain a high voltage in its OFF state, to offer a low resistance path for the sensor leakage current in the ON state, and be radiation hard up to 1.2e15 neq/cm2 along with other requirements. While GaN JFETs have been selected as suitable rad-hard switch, a silicon vertical HV-JFET was developed by Brookhaven National Laboratory as an alternat…
An intense 146 MeV/c pion beam was stopped inside a scintillating fiber detector made out of 12 planes with 16 pixels each, where every pixel consists out of 8 times 8 scintillating fibers of 500 mkm diameter dense packed. The detector was irradiated for 52 hours to more than 1 Mrad at its center. Before and directly after the irradiation the detector has been exposed to a particle beam to compare the corresponding light output. This study was continued during the following three months using cosmic rays. No damage was found taking into account the measurement errors of 5-10 %. In contrast a 9…
Radiation hardness studies of KURARAY SCSF-78M scintillating fibers and clear fibers from KURARAY and pol.hi.tech. performed under different dose rate conditions in proton and electron beams are summarized. For high dose rates in-situ measurements of the fiber light output were done. During several months after irradiation all fibers were measured concerning light emission and transparency. Fibers irradiated at high rates to about 1 Mrad are clearly damaged but recover within a few hours up to several weeks. Using smaller rates up to the same integral dose a decrease of the light output of sci…
This paper presents the results of neutron flux measurements at two irradiation facilities of the TRIGA Mark II reactor at ENEA Casaccia Research Center, Italy. The goal of these measurements is to provide a complete characterization of neutron irradiation facilities for accurate and precise dose evaluation in radiation damage tests and, more generally, for all applications that need a good knowledge of neutron flux in terms of intensity, energy spectrum and spatial distribution. The neutron activation technique is used to measure the activation rates of several reactions, chosen so to cover t…
Influence of the prolonged irradiation by fission products of 252Cf radionuclide on the operational parameters of silicon-lithium Si(Li) p-i-n detectors, Si surface barrier detectors and Si planar p+n detector was investigated. The obtained results revealed a linear shift of the fission fragment peaks positions towards the lower energies with increase of the irradiation dose for all investigated detectors. The rate of the peaks shift was found to depend strongly on the detector type and the strength of the electric field in the detectors active region, but not on the temperature of irradiation…
Technological tests of Total Ionizing Dose effects are required not only for silicon particle sensors developed in high energy physics experiments, but also for electronic devices and semiconductor elements used in commercial, automotive and space applications. Using x-ray irradiators, these technological tests and studies can be performed not only in facilities explicitly built for this mission, but also in medical or biological research facilities when some minima requirements are satisfied. Generally this irradiation can be performed without interfering with the medical and biological activ…
A CMOS pixel sensor, named Supix-1, is developed for a pixelated silicon tracker for the Circular Electron-Positron Collider (CEPC) project. The sensor, consisted of nine sectors varying in pixel sizes, diode sizes and geometries, is fabricated with a 180 nm CMOS Image Sensor (CIS) process to study the particle detection performance of enlarged pixels. In this work, the radiation-induced effects on the charge collection of the sensor under the fluence of 1 $\times$ 10^13 1 MeV neq/cm^2 are studied by the measurements with the radioactive source of Fe-55 and the Technology Computer Aided Design…
This paper presents the results of the fast neutron irradiation (E$_n$ > 0.5MeV) of an EJ-276 scintillator performed in the MARIA research reactor with fluence up to 5.3$\times$10$^{15}$ particles/cm$^2$. In our work, four samples with size $ϕ$25.4~mm$\times$5~mm were tested. The changes in the light yield, emission and absorption spectrum and neutron/gamma discrimination using PuBe source before and after irradiation are presented. The figure of merit in neutron/gamma discrimination based on the charge integration method for different neutron fluences and different short gate integration time…
We report radiation hardness tests performed at the Frascati Neutron Generator on silicon Photo-Multipliers, semiconductor photon detectors built from a square matrix of avalanche photo-diodes on a silicon substrate. Several samples from different manufacturers have been irradiated integrating up to 7x10^10 1-MeV-equivalent neutrons per cm^2. Detector performances have been recorded during the neutron irradiation and a gradual deterioration of their properties was found to happen already after an integrated fluence of the order of 10^8 1-MeV-equivalent neutrons per cm^2.
This paper is devoted to the study of a degradation of CsI(Tl)crystals scintillation characteristics under irradiation with gamma-quanta at the uniformly distributed absorbed dose up to 3700 rad. The sample set consisted of 25 crystals of 30 cm long having a truncated pyramid shape and 30 rectangular crystals of the same length. A large difference in the light output deterioration caused by the radiation was observed for the samples of the same shape. A substantial dependence of the average light output loss from the sample shape is seen as well. On the other hand, the crystals from the same i…
The development of instrumentation for operation in high-radiation environments represents a challenge in various research fields, particularly in particle physics experiments and space missions, and drives an ever-increasing demand for irradiation facilities dedicated to radiation hardness studies. Depending on the application, different needs arise in terms of particle type, energy and dose rate. In this article, we present a versatile installation based on a medical cyclotron located at the Bern University Hospital (Inselspital), which is used as a controlled 18-MeV proton source. This acce…
A new generation of 3D silicon pixel detectors with a small pixel size of 50$\times$50 and 25$\times$100 $μ$m$^{2}$ is being developed for the HL-LHC tracker upgrades. The radiation hardness of such detectors was studied in beam tests after irradiation to HL-LHC fluences up to $1.4\times10^{16}$ n$_{\mathrm{eq}}$/cm$^2$. At this fluence, an operation voltage of only 100 V is needed to achieve 97% hit efficiency, with a power dissipation of 13 mW/cm$^2$ at -25$^{\circ}$C, considerably lower than for previous 3D sensor generations and planar sensors.
This paper presents the experimental results of $17~MeV$ proton irradiation on a $60~GHz$ low power, half-duplex transceiver (TRX) chip implemented in $65~nm$ CMOS technology. It supports short range point-to-point data rate up to $6~Gbps$ by employing on-off keying (OOK). To investigate the irradiation hardness for high energy physics applications, two TRX chips were irradiated with total ionizing doses (TID) of $74~kGy$ and $42~kGy$ and fluence of $1.4~\times$10$^{14}~ N_{eq}/cm^2$ and $0.8~\times$10$^{14}~N_{eq}/cm^2$ for RX and TX modes, respectively. The chips were characterized by pre- a…
Modern avalanche photodiodes (APDs) with high gain are good device candidates for light readout from detectors applied in relativistic heavy ion collisions experiments. The results of the investigations of the APDs properties from Zecotek, Ketek and Hamamatsu manufacturers after irradiation using secondary neutrons from cyclotron facility U120M at NPI of ASCR in Řež are presented. The results of the investigations can be used for the design of the detectors for the experiments at NICA and FAIR.
Radiation damage on front-end readout and trigger electronics is an important issue in the COMET Phase-I experiment at J-PARC, which plans to search for the neutrinoless transition of a muon to an electron. To produce an intense muon beam, a high-power proton beam impinges on a graphite target, resulting in a high-radiation environment. We require radiation tolerance to a total dose of $1.0\,\mathrm{kGy}$ and $1\,\mathrm{MeV}$ equivalent neutron fluence of $1.0\times10^{12}\,\mathrm{n_{eq}\,cm^{-2}}$ including a safety factor of 5 over the duration of the physics measurement. The use of commer…
New pixel geometries are on the rise to achieve high sensitivity in near-infrared wavelengths with silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs). We test prototypes of the tip avalanche photo-diodes, which feature a quasi-spherical p-n junction and a high photodetection efficiency over a wide spectral range, and analyze the performance after neutron irradiation. The observed increase in dark count rate is significantly smaller than for a SiPM with a conventional design, indicating a good radiation hardness of the pixel geometry.
Studies of the radiation hardness of lead tungstate crystals produced by the Bogoroditsk Techno-Chemical Plant in Russia and the Shanghai Institute of Ceramics in China have been carried out at IHEP, Protvino. The crystals were irradiated by a 40-GeV pion beam. After full recovery, the same crystals were irradiated using a $^{137}Cs$ $γ$-ray source. The dose rate profiles along the crystal length were observed to be quite similar. We compare the effects of the two types of radiation on the crystals light output.
We report on the measurement of the neutron radiation hardness of silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) manufactured by Hamamatsu Corporation in Japan and SensL in Ireland. Samples from both companies were irradiated by neutrons created by a 1 GeV electron beam hitting a thin lead target at Jefferson Lab Hall A. More tests regarding the temperature dependence of the neutron radiation damage and self-annealing were performed on Hamamatsu SiPMs using a calibrated Am-Be neutron source from the Jefferson Lab Radiation Control group. As the result of irradiation both dark current and dark rate increase …
The Mu2e calorimeter is composed by 1400 un-doped CsI crystals coupled to large area UV extended Silicon Photomultipliers arranged in two annular disks. This calorimeter has to provide precise information on energy, timing and position. It should also be fast enough to handle the high rate background and it must operate and survive in a high radiation environment. Simulation studies estimated that, in the hottest regions, each crystal will absorb a dose of 300 Gy and will be exposed to a neutron fluency of 6 x 10^{11} n/cm^2 in 3 years of running. Test of un-doped CsI crystals irradiated up to…
Radiation Hardness of Commercially Available NUV-MT Silicon Photomultipliers
University of Hamburg（汉堡大学）；NCSR “Demokritos（德谟克利特国家研究中心）；Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics（核与粒子物理研究所）；School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Birmingham（伯明翰大学物理与天文学学院）
Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGAD) are based on a n++-p+-p-p++ structure where an appropriate doping of the multiplication layer (p+) leads to high enough electric fields for impact ionization. Gain factors of few tens in charge significantly improve the resolution of timing measurements, particularly for thin detectors, where the timing performance was shown to be limited by Landau fluctuations. The main obstacle for their operation is the decrease of gain with irradiation, attributed to effective acceptor removal in the gain layer. Sets of thin sensors were produced by two different produce…
The silicon trackers of the ATLAS experiment at LHC (CERN) use optical links for data transmission. VCSEL arrays operating at 850 nm are used to transmit optical signals while PIN arrays are used to convert the optical signals into electrical signals. We investigate the feasibility of using the devices at the Super LHC (SLHC). We irradiated VCSEL and GaAs PIN arrays from three vendors and silicon PIN arrays from one vendor. All arrays can be operated up to the SLHC dosage except the GaAs PIN arrays which have very low responsivities after irradiation and hence are probably not suitable for the…
Measurements of the degradation in performance of 30 cm long CsI(Tl) scintillation crystals exposed to 1 MeV photon doses of 2, 10, 35, 100 and 1000 Gy are presented. The light yield, light yield longitudinal non-uniformity, scintillation decay times, energy resolution and timing resolution of a set of spare crystals from the BABAR and Belle experiments are studied as a function of these doses. In addition, a model that describes the plateau observed in the light output loss as a function of dose in terms of increase in concentrations of absorption centres with irradiation is presented.
The radiation hardness of the AToM chips of the BaBar Silicon Vertex Tracker has been investigated by means of irradiations with photons from a 60Co source and 0.9 GeV electrons. The increase in noise and the decrease in gain of the amplifier have been measured as a function of the applied capacitive load and the absorbed dose. Different beam intensities have been used to study the effect of different dose rates to the AToM radiation damage. The chip digital functionalities have been tested up to a dose of 5.5 Mrads for the 60Co photons and 9 Mrads for the 0.9 GeV electrons. In addition a pede…
We report findings on the Ion Beam Induced Charge (IBIC) characterization of a 4H-SiC Schottky barrier diode (SBD), in terms of the modification of the Charge Collection Efficiency (CCE) distribution induced by 20 MeV C ions irradiations with fluences ranging from 20 to 200 ions/um2. The lateral IBIC microscopy with 4 MeV protons over the SBD cross section, carried out on the pristine diode evidenced the widening of the depletion layer extension as function of the applied bias and allowed the measurement of the minority carrier diffusion lengths. After the irradiation with C ions, lateral IBIC…
X-ray radiation hardness of FD-SOI n- and p-MOSFET has been investigated. After 1.4 kGy(Si) irradiation, 15% drain current increase for n-MOSFET and 20% drain current decrease for p-MOSFET are observed. From analysis of gmmax-Vsub, the major cause of n-MOSFET drain current change is the generated positive charge in BOX. On the other hand, the major cause of p-MOSFET drain current change is the radiation induced gate channel modulation by the generated positive charge in sidewall spacer. It is confirmed that the p-MOSFET drain current change is improved by higher PLDD dose. Thinner BOX is also …
X-ray SOI pixel sensors, "XRPIX", are being developed for the next-generation X-ray astronomical satellite, "FORCE". The XRPIX are fabricated with the SOI technology, which makes it possible to integrate a high-resistivity Si sensor and a low-resistivity Si CMOS circuit. The CMOS circuit in each pixel is equipped with a trigger function, allowing us to read out outputs only from the pixels with X-ray signals at the timing of X-ray detection. This function thus realizes high throughput and high time resolution, which enables to employ anti-coincidence technique for background rejection. A new s…
The properties of 50 um thick Low Gain Avalanche Diode (LGAD) detectors manufactured by Hamamatsu photonics (HPK) and Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK) were tested before and after irradiation with 1 MeV neutrons. Their performance were measured in charge collection studies using b-particles from a 90Sr source and in capacitance-voltage scans (C-V) to determine the bias to deplete the gain layer. Carbon infusion to the gain layer of the sensors was tested by FBK in the UFSD3 production. HPK instead produced LGADs with a very thin, highly doped and deep multiplication layer. The sensors were expos…
We present a comprehensive account of the proton radiation hardness of Eljen Technology's EJ-500 optical cement used in the construction of experiment detectors. The cement was embedded into five plastic scintillator tiles which were each exposed to one of five different levels of radiation by a 50 MeV proton beam produced at the 88-Inch Cyclotron at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. A cosmic ray telescope setup was used to measure signal amplitudes before and after irradiation. Another post-radiation measurement was taken four months after the experiment to investigate whether the radiat…
Silicon PhotoMultipliers (SiPM) are an excellent choice for the scintillator light readout at hadron calorimeters due to their insensitivity to magnetic fields, low operating voltages, low cost, compactness and mechanical endurance. They are already successfully utilized in Projectile Spectator Detector (PSD) of NA61 at CERN, and will be utilized soon in PSD of CBM at FAIR and Forward Hadron CALorimeters (FHCAL) of BM@N at NICA heavy-ion collision experiments. The main issue of SiPM application is their degradation due to high neutron fluence that can reach up to 2E11 neq/cm2 per year of the e…
Small-pitch 3D silicon pixel detectors have been investigated as radiation-hard candidates for the innermost layers of the HL-LHC pixel detector upgrades. Prototype 3D sensors with pixel sizes of 50$\times$50 and 25$\times$100 $μ$m$^{2}$ connected to the existing ATLAS FE-I4 readout chip have been produced by CNM Barcelona. Irradiations up to particle fluences of $3\times10^{16}$ n$_{\mathrm{eq}}$/cm$^2$, beyond the full expected HL-LHC fluences at the end of lifetime, have been carried out at Karlsruhe and CERN. The performance of the 50$\times$50 $μ$m$^{2}$ devices has been measured in the l…
For the Belle II experiment at KEK (Tsukuba, Japan) the KEKB accelerator was upgraded to deliver a 40 times larger instantaneous luminosity than before, which requires an increased radiation hardness of the detector components. As the innermost part of the Belle II detector, the pixel detector (PXD), based on DEPFET (DEpleted P-channel Field Effect Transistor) technology, is most exposed to radiation from the accelerator. An irradiation campaign was performed to verify that the PXD can cope with the expected amount of radiation. We present the results of this measurement campaign in which an X…
The electromagnetic calorimeter of PANDA at the FAIR facility will rely on an operation of lead tungstate (PWO) scintillation crystals at temperatures near -25 deg.C to provide sufficient resolution for photons in the energy range from 8 GeV down to 10 MeV. Radiation hardness of PWO crystals was studied at the IHEP (Protvino) irradiation facility in the temperature range from room temperature down to -25 deg.C. These studies have indicated a significantly different behaviour in the time evolution of the damaging processes well below room temperature. Different signal loss levels at the same do…
Pixel detectors are used in the innermost part of the multi purpose experiments at LHC and are therefore exposed to the highest fluences of ionising radiation, which in this part of the detectors consists mainly of charged pions. The radiation hardness of all detector components has thoroughly been tested up to the fluences expected at the LHC. In case of an LHC upgrade, the fluence will be much higher and it is not yet clear how long the present pixel modules will stay operative in such a harsh environment. The aim of this study was to establish such a limit as a benchmark for other possible …
We have studied the effects of ionizing irradiation from a 60Co source and the effects of neutron irradiation on a Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor Chip(MIMOSA8). A previous report was devoted solely to the neutron-induced effects. We show that extended defects due to the neutron damage changes the distribution of the pixels pedestals. This is mainly due to the increase of the dark generation current due to the presence of deep traps in the depleted zones of the sensors. Alternatively, the exposure to ionizing irradiation increases the pedestals in a more homogeneous way, this coming from the ge…
UHDpulse - Metrology for Advanced Radiotherapy using beams with Ultra-High Pulse Dose Rates is a European project aimed at developing novel dosimetry standards, as well as improving existing ones, for FLASH radiotherapy, very high energy electrons radiotherapy, and laser-driven medical accelerators. Within the scope of this project, Thermoluminescence (TL) and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) detectors are used to measure stray radiation fields. Experiments performed with conventional pulsed particle-beams allow to characterize the dosimeters in known and controllable radiation fields. …
In view of the tracking detector application to the ATLAS High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) upgrade, we have developed a new generation of High Voltage CMOS (HV-CMOS) monolithic pixel-sensor prototypes featuring the AMS aH18 (180 nm) commercial CMOS technology. By fully integrating both analog and digital readout-circuitry on the same particle-detecting substrate, current challenges of hybrid sensor technologies, i.e., larger readout input-capacitance, lower production-yield, and higher production and integration cost, can be downscaled. The large electrode design using high-resistivity substrates …
The ePix detector family provides multiple variants of hybrid pixel detectors to support a wide range of applications at free electron laser facilities. We present the results of a systematic study of the influence of radiation induced damage on the performance and lifetime of an ePix100a detector module using a direct attenuated beam of the EuXFEL at 9 keV photon energy and an average power of 10 $μ$W. An area of 20 x 20 pixels was irradiated with an average photon flux of approx. 7 x $10^{9}$ photons/s to a dose of approximately 760$\pm$65 kGy at the location of the Si/SiO$_2$ interfaces in …
Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) have become popular light conversion devices in recent years due to their low bias voltage and sensitivity to wavelengths emitted from common scintillating materials. These properties make them particularly attractive for resource-constrained missions such as space-based detector applications. However the space radiation environment is known to be particularly harsh on semiconductor devices, where high particle fluences can degrade performance over time. The radiation hardness of a particular SiPM, manufactured by ON Semiconductor (formally SensL), has yet to b…
The expected increase of total integrated luminosity by a factor of ten at the HL-LHC compared to the design goals for LHC essentially eliminates the safety factor for radiation hardness realized at the current cold amplifiers of the ATLAS Hadronic Endcap Calorimeter (HEC). New more radiation hard technologies have been studied: SiGe bipolar, Si CMOS FET and GaAs FET transistors have been irradiated with neutrons up to an integrated fluence of 2.2 \cdot 10^{16} n/cm2 and with 200 MeV protons up to an integrated fluence of 2.6 \cdot 10^{14} p/cm2. Comparisons of transistor parameters such as th…
The expected increase of total integrated luminosity by a factor ten at the HL-LHC compared to the design goals for LHC essentially eliminates the safety factor for radiation hardness realized at the current cold amplifiers of the ATLAS Hadronic End-cap Calorimeter (HEC). New more radiation hard technologies have been studied: SiGe bipolar, Si CMOS FET and GaAs FET transistors have been irradiated with neutrons up to an integrated fluence of 2.2 x 10^{16} n/cm^2 and with 200 MeV protons up to an integrated fluence of 2.6 x 10^{14} p/cm^2. Comparisons of transistor parameters such as the gain f…
Spectral yield of p+Be neutrons emitted by thick (stopping) beryllium target bombarded by 16 MeV protons was estimated via extrapolation of literature data. The spectrum was validated via multi-foil activation method and irradiation of 2N2222 transistors. The hardness parameter (NIEL scaling factor) for displacement damage in bulk silicon was calculated and measured and kappa = 1.26 +- 0.1 was obtained.
Recent progress in active-edge technology of silicon sensors enables the development of large-area tiled silicon pixel detectors with small dead space between modules by utilizing edgeless sensors. Such technology has been proven in successful productions of ATLAS and Medipix-based silicon pixel sensors by a few foundries. However, the drawbacks of edgeless sensors are poor radiation hardness for ionizing radiation and non-uniform charge collection by edge pixels. In this work, the radiation hardness of edgeless sensors with different polarities has been investigated using Synopsys TCAD with X…
