We show that there exists a bitsequence that is not computably random for which its odd bits are computably random and its even bits are computably random relative to the odd bits. This implies that the uniform variant of van Lambalgen's theorem fails for computable randomness. (The other direction of van Lambalgen's theorem is known to hold in this case, and known to fail for the non-uniform variant.)
A result of Shen says that if $F\colon2^{\mathbb{N}}\rightarrow2^{\mathbb{N}}$ is an almost-everywhere computable, measure-preserving transformation, and $y\in2^{\mathbb{N}}$ is Martin-Löf random, then there is a Martin-Löf random $x\in2^{\mathbb{N}}$ such that $F(x)=y$. Answering a question of Bienvenu and Porter, we show that this property holds for computable randomness, but not Schnorr randomness. These results, combined with other known results, imply that the set of Martin-Löf randoms is the largest subset of $2^{\mathbb{N}}$ satisfying this property and also satisfying randomness preser…
This is a survey of constructive and computable measure theory with an emphasis on the close connections with algorithmic randomness. We give a brief history of constructive measure theory from Brouwer to the present, emphasizing how Schnorr randomness is the randomness notion implicit in the work of Brouwer, Bishop, Demuth, and others. We survey a number of recent results showing that classical almost everywhere convergence theorems can be used to characterize many of the common randomness notions including Schnorr randomness, computable randomness, and Martin-Löf randomness. Last, we go into…
Analytic concepts contribute to our understanding of randomness of reals via algorithmic tests. They also influence the interplay between randomness and lowness notions. We provide a survey, written on the occasion of Rod Downey's 60th birthday.
Can a probabilistic gambler get arbitrarily rich when all deterministic gamblers fail? We study this problem in the context of algorithmic randomness, introducing a new notion -- almost everywhere computable randomness. A binary sequence $X$ is a.e.\ computably random if there is no probabilistic computable strategy which is total and succeeds on $X$ for positive measure of oracles. Using the fireworks technique we construct a sequence which is partial computably random but not a.e.\ computably random. We also prove the separation between a.e.\ computable randomness and partial computable rand…
We study the possible growth rates of the Kolmogorov complexity of initial segments of sequences that are random with respect to some computable measure on $2^ω$, the so-called proper sequences. Our main results are as follows: (1) We show that the initial segment complexity of a proper sequence $X$ is bounded from below by a computable function (that is, $X$ is complex) if and only if $X$ is random with respect to some computable, continuous measure. (2) We prove that a uniform version of the previous result fails to hold: there is a family of complex sequences that are random with respect to…
This paper explores a novel definition of Schnorr randomness for noncomputable measures. We say $x$ is uniformly Schnorr $μ$-random if $t(μ,x)<\infty$ for all lower semicomputable functions $t(μ,x)$ such that $μ\mapsto\int t(μ,x)\,dμ(x)$ is computable. We prove a number of theorems demonstrating that this is the correct definition which enjoys many of the same properties as Martin-Löf randomness for noncomputable measures. Nonetheless, a number of our proofs significantly differ from the Martin-Löf case, requiring new ideas from computable analysis.
We introduce a notion of computable randomness for infinite sequences that generalises the classical version in two important ways. First, our definition of computable randomness is associated with imprecise probability models, in the sense that we consider lower expectations (or sets of probabilities) instead of classical 'precise' probabilities. Secondly, instead of binary sequences, we consider sequences whose elements take values in some finite sample space. Interestingly, we find that every sequence is computably random with respect to at least one lower expectation, and that lower expect…
We show that for each computable ordinal $α>0$ it is possible to find in each Martin-Löf random $Δ^0_2$ degree a sequence $R$ of Cantor-Bendixson rank $α$, while ensuring that the sequences that inductively witness $R$'s rank are all Martin-Löf random with respect to a single countably supported and computable measure. This is a strengthening for random degrees of a recent result of Downey, Wu, and Yang, and can be understood as a randomized version of it.
An infinite bit sequence is called recursively random if no computable strategy betting along the sequence has unbounded capital. It is well-known that the property of recursive randomness is closed under computable permutations. We investigate analogous statements for randomness notions defined by betting strategies that are computable within resource bounds. Suppose that S is a polynomial time computable permutation of the set of strings over the unary alphabet (identified with N). If the inverse of S is not polynomially bounded, it is easy to build a polynomial time random bit sequence Z su…
We develop the theory of algorithmic randomness for the space $A^G$ where $A$ is a finite alphabet and $G$ is a computable amenable group. We give an effective version of the Shannon-McMillan-Breiman theorem in this setting. We also extend a result of Simpson equating topological entropy and Hausdorff dimension. This proof makes use of work of Ornstein and Weiss which we also present.
Algorithmic randomness theory starts with a notion of an individual random object. To be reasonable, this notion should have some natural properties; in particular, an object should be random with respect to image distribution if and only if it has a random preimage. This result (for computable distributions and mappings, and Martin-Löf randomness) was known for a long time (folklore); in this paper we prove its natural generalization for layerwise computable mappings, and discuss the related quantitative results.
We show that a computable function $f:\mathbb R\rightarrow\mathbb R$ has Luzin's property (N) if and only if it reflects $Π^1_1$-randomnes, if and only if it reflects $Δ^1_1(\mathcal O)$-randomness, and if and only if it reflects $\mathcal O$-Kurtz randomness, but reflecting Martin-Löf randomness or weak-2-randomness does not suffice. Here a function $f$ is said to reflect a randomness notion $R$ if whenever $f(x)$ is $R$-random, then $x$ is $R$-random as well. If additionally $f$ is known to have bounded variation, then we show $f$ has Luzin's (N) if and only if it reflects weak-2-randomness,…
Given any 1-random set $X$ and any $r\in(0,1)$, we construct a set of intrinsic density $r$ which is computable from $r\oplus X$. For almost all $r$, this set will be the first known example of an intrinsic density $r$ set which cannot compute any $r$-Bernoulli random set. To achieve this, we shall formalize the {\tt into} and {\tt within} noncomputable coding methods which work well with intrinsic density.
We investigate the strength of a randomness notion $\mathcal R$ as a set-existence principle in second-order arithmetic: for each $Z$ there is an $X$ that is $\mathcal R$-random relative to $Z$. We show that the equivalence between $2$-randomness and being infinitely often $C$-incompressible is provable in $\mathsf{RCA}_0$. We verify that $\mathsf{RCA}_0$ proves the basic implications among randomness notions: $2$-random $\Rightarrow$ weakly $2$-random $\Rightarrow$ Martin-Löf random $\Rightarrow$ computably random $\Rightarrow$ Schnorr random. Also, over $\mathsf{RCA}_0$ the existence of comp…
The rate of randomness (or dimension) of a string $σ$ is the ratio $C(σ)/|σ|$ where $C(σ)$ is the Kolmogorov complexity of $σ$. While it is known that a single computable transformation cannot increase the rate of randomness of all sequences, Fortnow, Hitchcock, Pavan, Vinodchandran, and Wang showed that for any $0<α<β<1$, there are a finite number of computable transformations such that any string of rate at least $α$ is turned into a string of rate at least $β$ by one of these transformations. However, their proof only gives very loose bounds on the correspondence between the number of trans…
Classical versions of Kolmogorov complexity are incomputable. Nevertheless, in 1975 Solovay showed that there are computable functions $f > K+O(1)$ such that for infinitely many strings $σ$, $f(σ)=K(σ)+O(1)$, where $K$ denotes prefix-free Kolmogorov complexity (while $C$ denotes plain Kolmogorov complexity). Such an $f$ is now called a Solovay function. We prove that many classical results about $K$ can be obtained by replacing $K$ by a Solovay function. For example, the three following properties of a function $g$ all hold for the function $K$. (i) The sum of the terms $\sum_n 2^{-g(n)}$ is a…
In this paper, we study Bernoulli random sequences, i.e., sequences that are Martin-Löf random with respect to a Bernoulli measure $μ_p$ for some $p\in[0,1]$, where we allow for the possibility that $p$ is noncomputable. We focus in particular on the case in which the underlying Bernoulli parameter $p$ is proper (that is, Martin-Löf random with respect to some computable measure). We show for every Bernoulli parameter $p$, if there is a sequence that is both proper and Martin-Löf random with respect to $μ_p$, then $p$ itself must be proper, and explore further consequences of this result. We a…
We reformulate slightly Russell's notion of typicality, so as to eliminate its circularity and make it applicable to elements of any first-order structure. We argue that the notion parallels Martin-Löf (ML) randomness, in the sense that it uses definable sets in place of computable ones and sets of ``small'' cardinality (i.e., strictly smaller than that of the structure domain) in place of measure zero sets. It is shown that if the domain $M$ satisfies $cf(|M|)>\aleph_0$, then there exist $|M|$ typical elements and only $<|M|$ non-typical ones. In particular this is true for the standard model…
We investigate which infinite binary sequences (reals) are effectively random with respect to some continuous (i.e., non-atomic) probability measure. We prove that for every n, all but countably many reals are n-random for such a measure, where n indicates the arithmetical complexity of the Martin-Löf tests allowed. The proof is based on a Borel determinacy argument and presupposes the existence of infinitely many iterates of the power set of the natural numbers. In the second part of the paper we present a metamathematical analysis showing that this assumption is indeed necessary. More precis…
可计算随机性的经典模型考虑取实数或有理值的鞅。Bienvenu et al.(2012)和Teutsch(2014)最近的工作表明,当鞅取整数值时,经典模型的基本特征会发生变化。我们比较的预测能力的鞅的赌注属于三个不同的子集的有理数:(a)所有的有理数,(b)有理数不包括一个穿孔的邻域为0,(c)整数。我们还考虑了三个不同的成功标准:(i)积累无限数量的货币,(ii)消费无限数量的货币,(iii)使积累的资本振荡。(a)-(c)和(i)-(iii)的九个组合定义了九个可计算随机性的概念。我们提供了一个完整的表征这些概念之间的关系,并表明它们形成五个线性有序类。我们的结果解决了Bienvenu et al.(2012),Teutsch(2014)和Chalcraft et al.(2012)提出的突出问题,并加强了现有的结果。
We examine several notions of randomness for elements in a given $Π^0_1$ class $\mathcal{P}$. Such an effectively closed subset $\mathcal{P}$ of $2^ω$ may be viewed as the set of infinite paths through the tree $T_{\mathcal{P}}$ of extendible nodes of $\mathcal{P}$, i.e., those finite strings that extend to a member of $\mathcal{P}$, so one approach to defining a random member of $\mathcal{P}$ is to randomly produce a path through $T_{\mathcal{P}}$ using a sufficiently random oracle for advice. In addition, this notion of randomness for elements of $\mathcal{P}$ may be induced by a map from $2…