Information technology is redefining national security and the use of force by state and nonstate actors. The use of force over the Internet warrants analysis given recent terrorist attacks. At the same time that information technology empowers states and their commercial enterprises, information technology makes infrastructures supported by computer systems increasingly accessible, interdependent, and more vulnerable to malicious attack. The Computer Security Institute and the FBI jointly estimate that financial losses attributed to malicious attack amounted to $378 million in 2000. International Law clearly permits a state to respond in self-defense when attacked by another state through the Internet, however, such attacks may not always rise to the scope, duration, and intensity threshold of an armed attack that may justify a use of force in self-defense.
This paper presents a policy framework to analyze the rules of engagement for Internet attacks. We describe the state of Internet security, incentives for asymmetric warfare, and the development of international law for conflict management and armed conflict. We focus on options for future rules of engagement specific to Information Warfare.
We conclude with four policy recommendations for Internet attack rules of engagement: (1) the U.S. should pursue international definitions of "force" and "armed attack" in the Information Warfare context; (2) the U.S. should pursue international cooperation for the joint investigation and prosecution of Internet attacks; (3) the U.S. must balance offensive opportunities against defensive vulnerabilities; and (4) the U.S. should prepare strategic plans now rather than making policy decisions in real-time during an Internet attack.
Ideological and Policy Origins of the Internet, 1957-1969
本文探讨了思想和政策的共识，形成了由信息处理技术办公室（IPTO）资助的计算研究在国防部的高级研究计划局（ARPA）。这一历史案例研究从斯普特尼克卫星到阿帕网的创建，展示了军事、科学和学术价值观如何塑造了互联网创建的基础时期的制度和关系。本文从三个方面进行了探讨：科学政策共识的意识形态、J.C. R. Licklider，以及这种共识和哲学在导致阿帕网创建的时期塑造IPTO研究的方式。通过考察1957年至1969年IPTO研究中的共识在知识、文化和制度方面的细节，我们可以理解这些价值观是如何定义网络计算的可能性的。这些行动者所表达的社会价值观的影响是决定性的：政府有义务支持广泛的科学研究，以促进公共利益和国防; IPTO赞助的计算研究将实现军事和科学目标; IPTO可以利用其在这一共识中的权力，创建一个网络，以共享资源，并将地理上的研究人员联合起来。对“共识”在这一时期（互联网的“史前史”）工作方式的更大认识为评估互联网的独特特征提供了更丰富的背景，例如其开放式架构，学院文化和基于标准的治理。
Evaluating AI-Powered Learning Assistants in Engineering Higher Education: Student Engagement, Ethical Challenges, and Policy Implications
ByWater Institute, Tulane University（杜兰大学拜沃特研究所）；Office of Teaching, Learning, and Technology, University of Iowa（爱荷华大学教学、学习与技术办公室）；River-Coastal Science and Engineering, Tulane University（杜兰大学河流与海岸科学与工程系）
本研究评估了在R1公立大学工程本科课程中应用的AI学习框架Educational AI Hub，通过混合方法发现学生认可其便利性但存在伦理顾虑，强调需提升可用性、伦理透明度并辅以教师指导以促进有效AI学习参与。
Student Engagement Detection Using Emotion Analysis, Eye Tracking and Head Movement with Machine Learning
University of Massachusetts Boston（马萨诸塞大学波士顿分校）；Kathmandu University（加德满都大学）；Wentworth Institute of Technology（温特沃斯理工学院）；Washington State University（华盛顿州立大学）；University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro（特拉斯奥斯蒙特斯和上杜罗大学）；Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro（阿威罗电子与信息学工程研究所）；INESC TEC
MC-CPO: Mastery-Conditioned Constrained Policy Optimization for Pedagogically Safe Intelligent Tutoring Systems
School of Computing Sciences（计算科学学院）；Computer Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA（计算机工程，密西西比大学，哈特斯伯格，MS 39406，USA）
