Subash Sachidananda, Alexander Ling
This work aims at controlling the bias voltage of APDs, used for single photon detection, with a micro-controller through pulse height comparison.
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This paper demonstrates the performance of planar geometry InGaAs/InP avalanche diodes, specifically designed and fabricated for Geiger-mode operation at wavelengths around 1550nm, in terms of dark count rate, single-photon detection efficiency, afterpulsing and photon-timing jitter.
We report on the characterization of the response of windowless silicon avalanche photo-diodes to electrons in the 90-900 eV energy range. The electrons were provided by a monoenergetic electron gun present in the LASEC laboratories of University of Roma Tre. We find that the avalanche photo-diode generates a current proportional to the current of electrons hitting its active surface. The gain is found to depend on the electron energy $E_e$, and varies from $2.147 \pm 0.027$ (for $E_e = 90$ eV) to $385.8 \pm 3.3$ (for $E_e = 900$ eV), when operating the diode at a bias of $V_{apd} = 350$ V.} T…
One of the most common approaches for quenching single-photon avalanche diodes is to use a passive resistor in series with it. A drawback of this approach has been the limited recovery speed of the single-photon avalanche diodes. High resistance is needed to quench the avalanche, leading to slower recharging of the single-photon avalanche diodes depletion capacitor. We address this issue by replacing a fixed quenching resistor with a bias-dependent adaptive resistive switch. Reversible generation of metallic conduction enables switching between low and high resistance states under unipolar bia…
Spectroscopic performance of Low-Gain Avalanche Diodes for different types of radiation
本文评估了三种低增益雪崩二极管在不同辐射类型下的增益性能，通过测量脉冲高度谱探究倍增物理机制，为拓展其应用提供依据。
Review of germanium-silicon single-photon avalanche diodes
综述锗硅单光子雪崩二极管在短波红外单光子探测中的进展，涵盖从低温到室温的演变及潜在新应用。
We characterize the temporal evolution of the afterpulse probability in a free-running negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD) over an extended range, from $\sim$300 ns to $\sim$1 ms. This is possible thanks to an extremely low dark count rate on the order of 1 cps at 10% efficiency, achieved by operating the NFAD at a temperatures as low as 143 K. Experimental results in a large range of operating temperatures (223-143 K) are compared with a legacy afterpulsing model based on multiple trap families at discrete energy levels, which is found to be lacking in physical completeness. Subsequently…
Silicon Carbide device (4H-SiC) has potential radiation hardness, high saturated carrier velocity and low temperature sensitivity theoretically. The Silicon Low Gain Avalanche Diode (LGAD) has been verified to have excellent time performance. Therefore, the 4H-SiC LGAD is introduced in this work for application to detect the Minimum Ionization Particles (MIPs). We provide guidance to determine the thickness and doping level of the gain layer after an analytical analysis. The gain layer thickness $d_{gain}=0.5~μm$ is adopted in our design. We design two different types of 4H-SiC LGAD which have…
Proton irradiation effects on a Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) device manufactured using a 150-nm CMOS process are presented. An irradiation campaign has been carried out with protons of 20 MeV and 24 MeV on several samples of a test chip containing SPADs arrays with two different junction layouts. The dark count rate distributions have been analyzed as a function of the displacement damage dose. Annealing and cooling have been investigated as possible damage mitigation approaches. We also discuss, through a space radiation simulation, the suitability of such devices on several space m…
We demonstrate an efficient and scalable compressive Raman parallelization scheme based on single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays to reach pixel dwell times of 23 $μ$s, representing over 10$\times$ speed-up using the otherwise weak spontaneous Raman effect.
A new Low Gain Avalanche Diode concept: the double-LGAD
提出双LGAD概念，通过耦合两个LGAD并共用前端电子学，在保持或改善时间分辨率的同时增加输入电荷，研究基于25、35、50微米厚度的单LGAD。
Stimulated Secondary Emission of Single Photon Avalanche Diodes
本研究测量了SiPMs在激光激发下的二次光子发射光谱，发现在4伏过电压下VUV4和VUV-HD3每次雪崩分别产生40±9和61±11个光子，且无显著温度依赖性。
Design and simulation of a 4H-SiC low gain avalanche diode with trench-isolation
该研究设计并仿真了一种30 μm厚的4H-SiC低增益雪崩二极管，通过2.4 μm增益层和沟槽隔离防护结构，实现1 kV反向偏压下的受控放大及超2.4 kV的击穿电压，并已在巴塞罗那IMB-CNM流片。
Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) based transient imaging suffers from an aberration called pile-up. When multiple photons arrive within a single repetition period of the illuminating laser, the SPAD records only the arrival of the first photon; this leads to a bias in the recorded light transient wherein the transient response at later time-instants are under-estimated. An unfortunate consequence of this is the need to operate the illumination at low-power levels to reduce the probability of multiple photons returning in a single period. Operating the laser at low power results in either l…
PIXELATED geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes(PPDs), often called silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are emerging as an excellent replacement for traditional photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) in a variety of detectors, especially those for subatomic physics experiments, which requires extensive test and operation procedures in order to achieve uniform responses from all the devices. In this paper, we show for two PPD brands, Hamamatsu MPPC and SensL SPM, that the dark noise rate, breakdown voltage and rate of correlated avalanches can be inferred from the sole measure of dark current as a function of o…
High-energy physics detectors, like Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs) that will be used as fast timing detectors in the High Luminosity LHC experiments, have to exhibit a significant radiation tolerance. Thereby the impact of radiation on the highly boron-doped gain layer that enables the internal charge multiplication, is of special interest, since due to the so-called Acceptor Removal Effect (ARE) a radiation-induced deactivation of active boron dopants takes place. In this paper we present defect-spectroscopy measurements (Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy and Thermally Stimulated Curren…
A successfull application of Geiger-mode multipixel avalanche diodes (GMAPDs) for pulse-shape discrimination in alpha-beta spectrometry using organic liquid scintillator is described in this paper. Efficient discrimination of alpha and beta components in the emission of radioactive isotopes is achieved for alpha energies above 0.3 MeV. The ultra-compact design of the scintillating detector helps to efficiently suppress cosmic-ray and ambient radiation background. This approach allows construction of hand-held robust devices for monitoring of radioactive contamination in various environmental c…
Capacitive-coupled Low-Gain Avalanche Diode (AC-LGAD) sensors are being developed for high-energy particle physics experiments as a detector which provides fast time information with fine spatial resolution. This paper describes optimizations of AC-LGAD sensor fabrication parameters, such as doping concentrations of the gain and electrode layers as well as the AC insulator capacitance, to realize $\mathcal{O}$(10)~\um{} spacial resolution, small charge cross talk to the neighboring electrodes, detection efficiency higher than 99\% at a 10$^{-4}$ fake rate and time resolution of about 30~ps. Th…
Room-temperature photonic quantum computing in integrated silicon photonics with germanium-silicon single-photon avalanche diodes
针对光子量子计算依赖低温超导探测器的问题，提出室温波导集成GeSi SPAD及空间复用型PNRAD，结合片上量子光源与可编程干涉回路，有望实现室温高性能光子量子计算。
We characterize a new commercial, back-illuminated reach-through silicon single-photon avalanche photo diode (SPAD) SAP500 (Laser Components. Inc.), operated in Geiger-mode for purpose of photon counting. We show that for this sensor a significant interplay exists between dark counts, detection efficiency, afterpulsing, excess voltage and operating temperature, sometimes requiring a careful optimization tailored for a specific application. We find that a large flat plateau of sensitive area of about 0.5 mm in diameter, a peak quantum efficiency of 73% at 560 nm and timing precision down to 150…
We report precise TCAD simulations of IHEP-IME-v1 Low Gain Avalanche Diode (LGAD) calibrated by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS). Our setup allows us to evaluate the leakage current, capacitance, and breakdown voltage of LGAD, which agree with measurements' results before irradiation. And we propose an improved LGAD Radiation Damage Model (LRDM) which combines local acceptor removal with global deep energy levels. The LRDM is applied to the IHEP-IME-v1 LGAD and able to predict the leakage current well at -30 $^{\circ}$C after an irradiation fluence of $ Φ_{eq}=2.5 \times 10^{15} ~n_{eq}/…
Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPAD) are affordable photodetectors, capable to collect extremely fast low-energy events, due to their single-photon sensibility. This makes them very suitable for time-of-flight-based range imaging systems, allowing to reduce costs and power requirements, without sacrifizing much temporal resolution. In this work we describe a computational model to simulate the behaviour of SPAD sensors, aiming to provide a realistic camera model for time-resolved light transport simulation, with applications on prototyping new reconstructions techniques based on SPAD time-of-…
InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are widely used in practical applications requiring near-infrared photon counting such as quantum key distribution (QKD). Photon detection efficiency and dark count rate are the intrinsic parameters of InGaAs/InP SPADs, due to the fact that their performances cannot be improved using different quenching electronics given the same operation conditions. After modeling these parameters and developing a simulation platform for InGaAs/InP SPADs, we investigate the semiconductor structure design and optimization. The parameters of photon detection ef…
Silicon sensors with high time resolution can help particle identification in the International Linear Collider (ILC). We are studying Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (LGADs) as a high timing resolution sensor. As a step to develop LGADs, we are now focusing to characterize Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)s, because the APDs has the same multiplication structure as LGADs. We studied the characteristics of APDs with particles from radioisotopes.
Gain layer degradation study after neutron and proton irradiations in Low Gain Avalanche Diodes
本研究针对ATLAS和CMS高亮度升级中LGAD探测器，通过中子和质子辐照实验，比较了HPK和CNM-IMB制造的LGAD增益层退化情况，为探测器性能评估提供依据。
Silicon single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is a core device for single-photon detection in the visible and the near-infrared range, and widely used in many applications. However, due to limits of the structure design and device fabrication for current silicon SPADs, the key parameters of detection befficiency and timing jitter are often forced to compromise. Here, we propose a nanostructured silicon SPAD, which achieves high detection efficiency with excellent timing jitter simultaneously over a broad spectral range. The optical and electric simulations show significant performance enhanceme…
Synchrotron light source X-ray detection with Low-Gain Avalanche Diodes
本研究在SLAC光源上表征了低增益雪崩二极管（LGADs）对6-70 keV X射线的响应，测量了其能量和时间分辨率，并通过TCAD模拟验证了电荷收集与倍增机制。
Impact of Environmental Stress on Low Gain Avalanche Diode Sensors Response
本文针对LGAD传感器开展环境应力测试与模拟，评估温度、湿度等环境因素对其响应的影响，为其在高能核物理等领域的应用提供关键依据。
Charge multiplication through avalanche processes is commonly employed in the detection of single photons or charged particles in high-energy physics and beyond. In this report, we provide a detailed discussion of the properties of avalanches driven by two species of charge carriers, e.g. electrons and holes in a semiconductor exposed to an electric field. We derive equations that describe the general case of avalanches developing in inhomogeneous electric fields and give their analytical solutions for constant fields. We discuss consequences for the time resolution achievable with detectors t…
We report on the first demonstration of fluorescence detection using single-photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs) monolithically integrated with a microfabricated surface ion trap. The SPADs are positioned below the trapping positions of the ions, and designed to detect 370 nm photons emitted from single $^{174}$Yb$^+$ and $^{171}$Yb$^+$ ions. We achieve an ion/no-ion detection fidelity for $^{174}$Yb$^+$ of 0.99 with an average detection window of 7.7(1) ms. We report a dark count rate as low as 1.2 kHz at room temperature operation. The fidelity is limited by laser scatter, dark counts, and h…
UV hybrid photon detector based on GaN photocathodes and Si low gain avalanche diode
本研究设计了一种结合 GaN 光电阴极与 Si LGAD 的混合光子探测器，利用高量子效率与低噪声特性，实现了在数百 MHz 频率下具备单光子探测灵敏度的潜力。
A near-infrared (NIR) enhanced silicon single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) fabricated in a customized 0.13 $μ$m CMOS technology is presented. The SPAD has a depleted absorption volume of approximately 15 $μ$m x 15 $μ$m x 18 $μ$m. Electrons generated in the absorption region are efficiently transported by drift to a central active avalanche region with a diameter of 2 $μ$m. At the operating voltage, the active region contains a spherically uniform field peak, enabling the multiplication of electrons originating from all corners of the device. The advantages of the SPAD architecture include hig…
A minimalist self-differencing gating scheme for dead-time-free single-photon avalanche diodes at high repetition rate
提出一种基于自差分技术的简化正弦波门控SPAD方案，实现100 MHz高重复率下无死时间运行，具有实现简单、偏置控制精确和信噪比高的优点。
We have performed a statistical characterization of the effect of afterpulsing in a free-running silicon single-photon detector by measuring the distribution of afterpulse waiting times in response to pulsed illumination and fitting it by a sum of exponentials. We show that a high degree of goodness of fit can be obtained for 5 exponentials, but the physical meaning of estimated characteristic times is dubious. We show that a continuous limit of the sum of exponentials with a uniform density between the limiting times gives excellent fitting results in the full range of the detector response f…
Photonic quantum technologies promise a revolution of the world of information processing, from simulation and computing to communication and sensing, thanks to the many advantages of exploiting single photons as quantum information carriers. In this scenario, single-photon detectors play a key role. On the one hand, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) are able to provide remarkable performance on a broad spectral range, but their applicability is often limited by the need of cryogenic operating temperatures. On the other hand, single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) overc…
We report on the first realization of time-dependent quantum detector tomography for commercially available InGaAs avalanche photo detectors. For the construction of appropriate time-dependent POVMs from experimentally measured data, we introduce a novel scheme to calculate the weight of the regularization term based on the amount of measured data. We compare our POVM-based results with the theoretical predictions of the previously developed model by Gouzien et al. In contrast to our measurement-based construction of a time-dependent POVM for photon detectors, this previous investigation exten…
Study of impact ionization coefficients in silicon with Low Gain Avalanche Diodes
本文通过多种 LGAD 的增益测量评估现有碰撞电离模型，提出新的电子和空穴碰撞电离系数参数化，并用 TCAD 仿真验证其优于现有模型。
Single-photon detectors, like Avalanche Photo Diodes (APDs), have a great importance in many fields like quantum key distribution, laser ranging, florescence microscopy, etc. Afterpulsing is a typical non ideal behavior of APDs, operated in Geiger mode, which adversely affects any application which measures the number or timing of detection events. Several conflicting studies have tried to model afterpulsing behavior and link it to fundamental semiconductor physics. Here we describe experiments we performed on at least 2 different detectors from 3 manufacturers, all commonly used in quantum op…
We demonstrate high count rate single photon detection at telecom wavelengths using a thermoelectrically-cooled semiconductor diode. Our device consists of a single InGaAs avalanche photodiode driven by a 2 GHz gating frequency signal and coupled to a tuneable self-differencing circuit for enhanced detection sensitivity. We find the count rate is linear with the photon flux in the single photon detection regime over approximately four orders of magnitude, and saturates at 1 gigacount/s at high photon fluxes. This result highlights promising potential for APDs in high bit rate quantum informati…
The avalanche delay effect in sine-gated single-photon detector based on InGaAs/InP SPADs
本研究发现基于InGaAs/InP SPAD的正弦门控单光子探测器存在雪崩延迟效应，明确其与后脉冲等已知效应无关、会提升QKD系统误码率，并实验测定了温度等控制参数对该效应的影响。
It is challenging to implement genuine free running single photon detectors for the 1550 nm wavelength range with simultaneously high detection efficiency (DE), low dark noise, and good time resolution. We report a novel read out system for the signals from a negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD) which allows useful operation of these devices at a temperature of 193 K and results in very low dark counts (~100 CPS), good time jitter (~30 ps), and good DE (~10%). We characterized two NFADs with a time correlation method using photons generated from weak coherent pulses (WCP) and photon pairs …
Characterization of 4H-SiC Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs)
本研究制备并表征了带圆形台面、低阻接触和SiO₂钝化层的4H-SiC低增益雪崩探测器（LGADs），通过与PiN二极管对比验证其高击穿电压、低漏电流特性，经α粒子辐照实验证实该器件可实现低增益电荷载流子倍增。
We report on the results of the search for dark photons with mass around 1.5$\,\rm eV/c^2$ using a multilayer dielectric haloscope equipped with an affordable and commercially available photosensor. The multilayer stack, which enables the conversion of dark photons (DP) to Standard Model photons, is made of 23 bilayers of alternating SiO$_2$ and Si$_3$N$_4$ thin films with linearly increasing thicknesses through the stack (a configuration known as a "chirped stack"). The thicknesses have been chosen according to an optimisation algorithm in order to maximise the DP-photon conversion in the ene…
Room temperature operation of germanium-silicon single-photon avalanche diode
针对硅基SPAD无法适配短波红外探测的问题，研发出可室温运行、兼容CMOS工艺的高性能锗硅SPAD，其噪声等效功率大幅提升，多项关键参数表现优异，验证了三维成像应用潜力。
Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (LGADs) are thin (20-50 $μm$)silicon di ode sensors with modest internal gain (typically 5 to 50) and exceptional time resolution (17 $ps$ to 50 $ps$). However, the granularity of such devices is limited to the millimeter scale due to the need to include protection structures at the boundaries of the readout pads to avoid premature breakdown due to large local electric fields. In this paper we present a new approach -- the Deep-Junction LGAD (DJ-LGAD) -- that decouples the high-field gain region from the readout plane. This approach is expected to improve the achievab…
Laser-written reconfigurable photonic integrated circuit directly coupled to a single-photon avalanche diode array
本研究提出了一种激光写入的可重构光子集成电路与单光子雪崩二极管阵列的直接耦合方案，实现了高探测效率和紧凑设计，为量子光子学实验提供了新途径。
Single-photon detectors (SPDs) are the most sensitive instruments for light detection. In the near-infrared range, SPDs based on III-V compound semiconductor avalanche photodiodes have been extensively used during the past two decades for diverse applications due to their advantages in practicality including small size, low cost and easy operation. In the past decade, the rapid developments and increasing demands in quantum information science have served as key drivers to improve the device performance of single-photon avalanche diodes and to invent new avalanche quenching techniques. This Re…
Response of AC-coupled Low Gain Avalanche Detectors to Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation Damage
本研究将带交直流耦合读出的低增益雪崩二极管暴露于相关剂量的电离与非电离辐射下，测定了其受主去除常数、电阻率、漏电流及耗尽电压的损伤变化，为多领域未来实验的探测器选型提供参考。
In this work we investigate operation in the Geiger mode of the new single photon avalanche photo diode (SPAD) SAP500 manufactured by Laser Components. This SPAD is sensitive in the range 400-1000nm and has a conventional reach-through structure which ensures good quantum efficiency at the long end of the spectrum. By use of passive and active quenching schemes we investigate detection efficiency, timing jitter, dark counts, afterpulsing, gain and other important parameters and compare them to the "standard" low noise SPAD C30902SH from Perkin Elmer. We conclude that SAP500 offers better combi…
InGaAs/InP-based semiconductor avalanche photodiode are usually employed for single-photon counting at telecom wavelength. However they are affected by afterpulsing which limits the diode performance. Recently, Princeton Lightwave has commercialised a diode integrating monolithically a feedback resistor. This solution effectively quenches the avalanche and drastically reduces afterpulsing. Here, we report the development and characterization of a detector module based on this diode, implementing an active hold-off circuit which further reduces the afterpulsing and notably improves the detector…
First experimental time-of-flight-based proton radiography using low gain avalanche diodes
本研究首次基于低增益雪崩二极管（LGAD）构建飞行时间离子CT（Sandwich TOF-iCT）演示装置，无需剩余能量探测器即可测定相对阻止本领，成功采集首幅TOF质子射线图像，为临床应用奠定基础。
We report a 1.036 GHz gated Geiger mode InGaAs avalanche photodiode with a detection dead time of just 1.93 ns. This is demonstrated by full recovery of the detection efficiency two gate cycles after a detection event, as well as a measured maximum detection rate of 497 MHz. As an application, we measure the second order correlation function $g^{(2)}$ of the emission from a diode laser with a single detector which works reliably at high speed owing to the extremely short dead time of the detector. The device is ideal for high bit rate fiber wavelength quantum key distribution and photonic quan…
To measure light emission pattern in scintillator, higher sensitivity and faster response are required to photo detector. Such as single photon avalanche diode (SPAD), conventional pixelated photo detector is operated at Geiger avalanche multiplication. However higher gain of SPAD seems very attractive, photon detection efficiency per unit area is low. This weak point is mainly caused by Geiger avalanche mechanism. To overcome these difficulties, we designed Pixelated Linear Avalanche Integration Detector using Silicon on Insulator technology (SOI-Plaid). To avoid dark count noise and dead tim…
We give an analytic treatment of the time resolution and efficiency of Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) and Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs). We provide closed-form expressions for structures with uniform electric fields and efficient numerical prescriptions for arbitrary electric field configurations. We discuss the sensor performance for single photon detection and also for charged particle detection.
SiPM understanding using simple Geiger-breakdown simulations
该研究用一维 Monte-Carlo 盖革击穿模拟分析 SiPM 雪崩过程，发现电流峰值与终止电压规律不同于传统认识，并比较了电流、击穿概率和增益特性。
The upgrades of ATLAS and CMS for the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) highlighted physics objects timing as a tool to resolve primary interactions within a bunch crossing. Since the expected pile-up is around 200, with an r.m.s. time spread of 180 ps, a time resolution of about 30 ps is needed. The timing detectors will experience a 1-MeV neutron equivalent fluence of about $Φ_{eq}=10^{14}$ and $10^{15}$ cm$^{-2}$ for the barrel and end-cap regions, respectively. In this contribution, deep diffused Avalanche Photo Diodes (APDs) produced by Radiation Monitoring Devices are examined as candidate ti…
Motivated by the need for fast timing detectors to withstand up to 2 MGy of ionizing dose at the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider, prototype low gain avalanche detectors (LGADs) have been fabricated in single pad configuration, 2x2 arrays, and related p-i-n diodes, and exposed to Co- 60 sources for study. Devices were fabricated with a range of dopant layer concentrations and, for the arrays, a variety of inter-pad distances and distances from the active area to the edge. Measurements of capacitance versus voltage and leakage current versus voltage have been made to compare pre- and post-…
In order to build a new concept of photomultiplier based on silicon technology, design and characterization of 5x5 arrays of a new generation of single photon avalanche diodes (SPAD) manufactured by ST-Microelectronics have been performed. Single photons sensitivity, dark noise and timing resolution of the SPAD- STM devices in several experimental conditions have been evaluated. Moreover, the effects arising from the multiple integration of many elements and the study of their common read-out have been deeply investigated.
Integrated quantum photonics, which allows for the development and implementation of chip-scale devices, is recognized as a key enabling technology on the road towards scalable quantum networking schemes. However, many state-of-the-art integrated quantum photonics demonstrations still require the coupling of light to external photodetectors. On-chip silicon single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) provide a viable solution as they can be seamlessly integrated with photonic components, and operated with high efficiencies and low dark counts at temperatures achievable with thermoelectric cooling. …
Mortality of ultra-thin LGADs and PiN diodes from high energy deposition
研究超薄LGADs和PiN二极管在高能沉积下的致死性，通过预辐照和粒子束测试，揭示了辐射损伤机制，为降低单粒子烧毁风险提供依据。
Single-photon detection is an invaluable tool for many applications ranging from basic research to consumer electronics. In this respect, the Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) plays a key role in enabling a broad diffusion of these techniques thanks to its remarkable performance, room-temperature operation, and scalability. In this paper we present a silicon technology that allows the fabrication of SPAD-arrays with an unprecedented combination of low timing jitter (95 ps FWHM) and high detection efficiency at red and near infrared wavelengths (peak of 70% at 650 nm, 45% at 800 nm). We disc…
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