BBN, Harvard, and Boston University are building the DARPA Quantum Network, the world's first network that delivers end-to-end network security via high-speed Quantum Key Distribution, and testing that Network against sophisticated eavesdropping attacks. The first network link has been up and steadily operational in our laboratory since December 2002. It provides a Virtual Private Network between private enclaves, with user traffic protected by a weak-coherent implementation of quantum cryptography. This prototype is suitable for deployment in metro-size areas via standard telecom (dark) fiber. In this paper, we introduce quantum cryptography, discuss its relation to modern secure networks, and describe its unusual physical layer, its specialized quantum cryptographic protocol suite (quite interesting in its own right), and our extensions to IPsec to integrate it with quantum cryptography.
Quantum cryptography can, in principle, provide unconditional security guaranteed by the law of physics only. Here, we survey the theory and practice of the subject and highlight some recent developments.
We discuss the unambiguous measurement of quantum nonorthogonal states in connection with the quantum cryptography. We show that checking a ratio of null one to signal is essential in detecting a certain kind of eavesdropping in the case of two nonorthogonal states quantum cryptography. We prove that it is not needed in the case of the four states quantum cryptography.
Quantum cryptography is a new method for secret communications offering the ultimate security assurance of the inviolability of a Law of Nature. In this paper we shall describe the theory of quantum cryptography, its potential relevance and the development of a prototype system at Los Alamos, which utilises the phenomenon of single-photon interference to perform quantum cryptography over an optical fiber communications link.
We present a new approach to simulate quantum cryptography protocols using event-based processes. The method is validated by simulating the BB84 protocol and the Ekert protocol, both without and with the presence of an eavesdropper.
We report experimental studies on the effect of the depolarizing quantum channel on weak-pulse BB84 and SARG04 quantum cryptography. The experimental results show that, in real world conditions in which channel depolarization cannot be ignored, BB84 should perform better than SARG04.
Noise causes severe difficulties in implementing quantum computing and quantum cryptography. Several schemes have been suggested to reduce this problem, mainly focusing on quantum computation. Motivated by quantum cryptography, we suggest a coding which uses $N$ quantum bits ($N=n^2$) to encode one quantum bit, and reduces the error exponentially with $n$. Our result suggests the possibility of distributing a secure key over very long distances, and maintaining quantum states for very long times. It also provides a new quantum privacy amplification against a strong adversary.
Quantum cryptography could well be the first application of quantum mechanics at the individual quanta level. The very fast progress in both theory and experiments over the recent years are reviewed, with emphasis on open questions and technological issues.
Quantum discord is the minimal bipartite resource which is needed for a secure quantum key distribution, being a cryptographic primitive equivalent to non-orthogonality. Its role becomes crucial in device-dependent quantum cryptography, where the presence of preparation and detection noise (inaccessible to all parties) may be so strong to prevent the distribution and distillation of entanglement. The necessity of entanglement is re-affirmed in the stronger scenario of device-independent quantum cryptography, where all sources of noise are ascribed to the eavesdropper.
We propose an alternative quantum cryptography protocol using the quantum interference effect. The efficiency of creating sifted key can reach 100\% in principle, which is higher than previous protocols. Especially, compared with the typical quantum key distribution, the present scheme does not require the authorized parties to check their bases. Because the potential eavesdropper can only access part of the quantum system, the proposed scheme has natural practical security advantages. The scheme can be implemented with current technologies and opens promising possibilities for quantum cryptog…
It has been shown that the predictions of some new phenomena (e.g., teleportation and cryptography) are based on some assumptions added to the quantum-mechanical model or modifying some of its basic axioms. The hitherto experiments presented as a support of the mentioned phenomena may be hardly regarded as sufficient, as they may be interpreted alternatively on the basis of simple interference processes.
A highly attenuated laser pulse which gives a weak coherent state is widely used in quantum key distribution (QKD) experiments. A weak coherent state has multi-photon components, which opens up a security loophole to the sophisticated eavesdropper. With a small adjustment of the hardware, we prove that the decoy state method can close this loophole and substantially improve the QKD performance. We also propose a few practical decoy state protocols, study statistical fluctuations and perform experimental demonstrations. Moreover, we apply the methods from entanglement distillation protocols bas…
We study optimal eavesdropping in quantum cryptography with three-dimensional systems, and show that this scheme is more secure than protocols using two-dimensional states. We generalize the according eavesdropping transformation to arbitrary dimensions, and discuss the connection with optimal quantum cloning.
A large number of quantum location verification protocols have been proposed. All existing protocols in this field are based on symmetric cryptography where verifiers and the prover use the same secret key. The prover obtains secret key from different verifiers, in pieces through public channels, which may result in security compromise. In this paper, we give a formulism to prove information-theoretic position-based quantum cryptography is possible in asymmetric quantum setting. We propose a quantum location verification protocol based on asymmetric quantum cryptographic where two different ke…
We propose and discuss a specific scheme allowing to realize a Quantum Cryptography qutrit protocol. This protocol exploits the polarization properties of single frequency and single spatial mode biphotons.
We propose a quantum transmission based on bi-photons which are doubly-entangled both in polarisation and phase. This scheme finds a natural application in quantum cryptography, where we show that an eventual eavesdropper is bound to introduce a larger error on the quantum communication than for a single entangled bi-photon communication, when steeling the same information.
A quantum cryptosystem is proposed using single-photon states with different frequency spectra as information carriers. A possible experimental implementation of the cryptosystem is discussed.
We prove that in the BB84 quantum cryptography protocol Alice and Bob do not need to make random bases-choice for each qubit: they can keep the same bases for entire blocks of qubits. It suffices that the raw key consists of many such qubit-blocks. The practical advantage of reducing the need for random number is emphasized.
Quantum Cryptography is on the verge of commercial application. One of its greatest limitations is over long distance - secret key rates are low and the longest fibre over which any key has been exchanged is currently 100 km. We investigate the quantum relay, which can increase the maximum distance at which quantum cryptography is possible. The relay splits the channel into sections, and sends a different photon across each section, increasing the signal to noise ratio. The photons are linked as in teleportation, with entangled photon pairs and Bell measurements. We show that such a scheme cou…
We introduce a framework for graphical security proofs in device-independent quantum cryptography using the methods of categorical quantum mechanics. We are optimistic that this approach will make some of the highly complex proofs in quantum cryptography more accessible, facilitate the discovery of new proofs, and enable automated proof verification. As an example of our framework, we reprove a previous result from device-independent quantum cryptography: any linear randomness expansion protocol can be converted into an unbounded randomness expansion protocol. We give a graphical proof of this…
Methods of quantum mechanics promise information-theoretic security for various protocols in cryptography. However, impossibility of some cryptographic applications such as standard bit commitment, oblivious transfer, multiparty secure computations and ideal coin tossing in quantum regime leaves an obvious question on the completeness of quantum cryptography. Instead of using wide range of rules and techniques for a variety of cryptographic applications, we demonstrate here a unified structure for quantum cryptography based on quantum non-local correlations. The unified framework achieves same…
We assess the potential of quantum cryptography as a technology. We highlight the fact that academia and real world have rather different perspectives and interests. Then, we describe the various real life forces (different types of users, vendors of crypto-systems, conventional cryptographers, governments) behind the decision of the adoption (or rejection) of quantum cryptography and their different interests. Various roadblocks to the widespread application of quantum cryptography are discussed. Those roadblocks can be fundamental, technological, psychological, commercial or political and ma…
We describe how to modify the BB84 protocol for quantum cryptography in order to make it deterministic. We study both theoretical and experimental aspects of this issue, showing that the new scheme is as secure as the old one, more efficient on small-scale distances, and within the range of current technology.
The phenomenon of quantum erasure has long intrigued physicists, but has surprisingly found limited practical application. Here, we propose an erasure-based protocol for quantum key distribution (QKD) that promises inherent security against detector attacks.
Over decades quantum cryptography has been intensively studied for unconditionally secured data transmission in a quantum regime. Due to the quantum loopholes caused by imperfect single photon detectors and/or lossy quantum channels, however, the quantum cryptography is practically inefficient and even vulnerable to eavesdropping. Here, a method of unconditionally secured key distribution potentially compatible with current fiber-optic communications networks is proposed in a classical regime for high-speed optical backbone networks. The unconditional security is due to the quantum superpositi…
In this paper we analyze the security of the so-called quantum tomographic cryptography with the source producing entangled photons via an experimental scheme proposed in Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 37903 (2004). We determine the range of the experimental parameters for which the protocol is secure against the most general incoherent attacks.
A new cryptographic tool, anonymous quantum key technique, is introduced that leads to unconditionally secure key distribution and encryption schemes that can be readily implemented experimentally in a realistic environment. If quantum memory is available, the technique would have many features of public-key cryptography; an identification protocol that does not require a shared secret key is provided as an illustration. The possibility is also indicated for obtaining unconditionally secure quantum bit commitment protocols with this technique.
Based on quantum encryption, we present a new idea for quantum public-key cryptography (QPKC) and construct a whole theoretical framework of a QPKC system. We show that the quantum-mechanical nature renders it feasible and reasonable to use symmetric keys in such a scheme, which is quite different from that in conventional public-key cryptography. The security of our scheme is analyzed and some features are discussed. Furthermore, the state-estimation attack to a prior QPKC scheme is demonstrated.
This paper is replaced by arXiv:1009.2490. The new paper includes a general impossibility result and restricted possibility results, and it has two additional authors.
A new quantum cryptography protocol, based on all unselected states of a qubit as a sort of alphabet with continuous set of letters, is proposed. Its effectiveness is calculated and shown to be essentially higher than those of the other known protocols.
In the distrustful quantum cryptography model the different parties have conflicting interests and do not trust one another. Nevertheless, they trust the quantum devices in their labs. The aim of the device-independent approach to cryptography is to do away with the necessity of making this assumption, and, consequently, significantly increase security. In this paper we enquire whether the scope of the device-independent approach can be extended to the distrustful cryptography model, thereby rendering it `fully' distrustful. We answer this question in the affirmative by presenting a device-ind…
As an alternative to the usual key generation by two-way communication in schemes for quantum cryptography, we consider codes for key generation by one-way communication. We study codes that could be applied to the raw key sequences that are ideally obtained in recently proposed scenarios for quantum key distribution, which can be regarded as communication through symmetric four-letter channels.
A setup for discriminating between arbitrary two coherent states of a single light mode with the highest success rate allowed by quantum mechanics is presented. Its application to time-multiplexed quantum key distribution is discussed.
A quantum cryptography scheme based on entanglement between a single particle state and a vacuum state is proposed. The scheme utilizes linear optics devices to detect the superposition of the vacuum and single particle states. Existence of an eavesdropper can be detected by using a variant of Bell's inequality.
We describe a cryptographic protocol in which Wheeler's delayed choice experiment is used to generate the key distribution. The protocol, which uses photons polarized only along one axis, is secure against general attacks.
We show how two distrustful parties, "Bob" and "Charlie", can share a secret key with the help of a mutually trusted "Alice", counterfactually - that is with no information-carrying particles travelling between any of the three parties.
Recently, counterfactual quantum cryptography proposed by T. G. Noh [Phys. Rev. Lett. 103, 230501 (2009)] becomes an interesting direction in quantum cryptography, and has been realized by some researchers (such as Y. Liu et al's [Phys. Rev. Lett. 109, 030501 (2012)]). However, we find out that it is insecure in practical high lossy channel setting. We analyze the secret key rates in lossy channel under a polarization-splitting-measurement attack. Analysis indicates that the protocol is insecure when the loss rate of the one-way channel exceeds $50%$.
A new cryptosystem based on the fundamental time--energy uncertainty relation is proposed. Such a cryptosystem can be implemented with both correlated photon pairs and single photon states.
We use the probability of error as a measure of distinguishability between two pure and two mixed symmetric coherent states in the context of continuous variable quantum cryptography. We show that the two mixed symmetric coherent states (in which the various components have the same real part) never give an eavesdropper more information than two pure coherent states.
The significance of quantum computation for cryptography is discussed. Following a brief survey of the requirements for quantum computational hardware, an overview of the ion trap quantum computation project at Los Alamos is presented. The physical limitations to quantum computation with trapped ions are analyzed and an assessment of the computational potential of the technology is made.
A photon source based on postselection from entangled photon pairs produced by parametric frequency down-conversion is suggested. Its ability to provide good approximations of single-photon states is examined. Application of this source in quantum cryptography for quantum key distribution is discussed. Advantages of the source compared to other currently used sources are clarified. Future prospects of the photon source are outlined.
We perform a comparison of two protocols for generating a cryptographic key composed from d-valued symbols: one exploiting a string of independent qubits and another one utilizing d-level systems prepared in states belonging to d+1 mutually unbiased bases. We show that the protocol based on qubits is optimal for quantum cryptography, since it provides higher security and higher key generation rate.
It has been suggested that the ability of quantum mechanics to allow secure distribution of secret key together with its inability to allow bit commitment or communicate superluminally might be sufficient to imply the rest of quantum mechanics. I argue using a toy theory as a counterexample that this is not the case. I further discuss whether an additional axiom (key storage) brings back the quantum nature of the theory.
In the last few years the world in which Quantum Cryptography evolves has deeply changed. On the one side the revelations of Snowden, though he said nothing really new, made the world more aware of the importance to protect sensitive data from all kinds of adversaries, including sometimes "friends." On the other side, breakthroughs in quantum computation, in particular in superconducting qubits and surface-codes, made it possible that in 15 to 25 years there might be a quantum machine able to break today's codes. This implies that in order to protect today's data over a few decades, one has to…
Quantum cryptography is reviewed, first using entanglement both for the intuition and for the experimental realizations. Next, the implementation is simplified in several steps until it becomes practical. At this point entanglement has disappeared. This method can be seen as a lesson of Applied Physics. Finally, security issues, e.g. photon number splitting attacks, and counter-measures are discussed.
Several mechanisms that affect one and two photon coherence in optical fibers and their remedies are discussed. The results are illustrated on quantum cryptography experiments and on long distance Bell inequality tests.
We consider the security of continuous-variable quantum cryptography as we approach the classical-limit, i.e., when the unknown preparation noise at the sender's station becomes significantly noisy or thermal (even by as much as 10,000 times the variance of the vacuum mode). We show that, provided the channel transmission losses do not exceed 50%, the security of quantum cryptography is not dependent on the channel transmission, and is therefore, incredibly robust against significant amounts of excess preparation noise. We extend these results to consider for the first time quantum cryptograph…
It is shown that the optimum strategy of the eavesdropper, as described in the preceding paper, can be expressed in terms of a quantum circuit in a way which makes it obvious why certain parameters take on particular values, and why obtaining information in one basis gives rise to noise in the conjugate basis.
