M. Ardehali
We describe a cryptographic protocol in which Wheeler's delayed choice experiment is used to generate the key distribution. The protocol, which uses photons polarized only along one axis, is secure against general attacks.
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A shortcoming in the authors' interpretation of this beautiful new experiment is pointed out and briefly discussed.
Wheeler has strikingly illustrated the wave-particle duality by the delayed-choice thought experiment, in which the configuration of a 2-path interferometer is chosen after a single-photon light-pulsed has entered it. We present a quantitative theoretical analysis of an experimental realization of Wheeler's proposal.
We present a computer simulation model of Wheeler's delayed choice experiment that is a one-to-one copy of an experiment reported recently (V. Jacques {\sl et al.}, Science 315, 966 (2007)). The model is solely based on experimental facts, satisfies Einstein's criterion of local causality and does not rely on any concept of quantum theory. Nevertheless, the simulation model reproduces the averages as obtained from the quantum theoretical description of Wheeler's delayed choice experiment. Our results prove that it is possible to give a particle-only description of Wheeler's delayed choice expe…
We construct a quantum bit commitment scheme using a double-slit setup similar to Wheeler's delayed choice experiment. Bob sends photons toward the double-slit, and Alice commits by determining either the slit from which each photon emerges (for $b=0$), or its landing position on a screen (for $b=1$). Since the photon's wave front expands at the speed of light, Alice cannot delay the detection indefinitely, or it would very soon be out of her control no matter how much resources she has.
Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment investigates the indeterminacy of wave-particle duality and the role played by the measurement apparatus in quantum theory. Due to the inconsistency with classical physics, it has been generally believed that it is not possible to reproduce the delayed-choice experiment using a hidden variable theory. Recently, it was shown that this assumption was incorrect, and in fact Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment can be explained by a causal two dimensional hidden-variable theory [R. Chaves, G. B. Lemos, and J. Pienaar, Phys. Rev. Lett. 120, 190401 (2018)]. Here, w…
Gedankenexperiments have consistently played a major role in the development of quantum theory. A paradigmatic example is Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment, a wave-particle duality test that cannot be fully understood using only classical concepts. Here, we implement Wheeler's idea along a satellite-ground interferometer which extends for thousands of kilometers in Space. We exploit temporal and polarization degrees of freedom of photons reflected by a fast moving satellite equipped with retro-reflecting mirrors. We observed the complementary wave-like or particle-like behaviors at the groun…
Nowadays the most intriguing features of wave particle complementarity of single photon is exemplified by the famous Wheeler's delayed choice experiment in linear optics, nuclear magnetic resonance and integrated photonic device systems. Studying the wave particle behavior in light and matter interaction at single photon level is challenging and interesting, which gives how single photons complement in light and matter interaction. Here, we demonstrate a Wheeler's delayed choice experiment in an interface of light and atomic memory, in which the cold atomic memory makes the heralded single pho…
We consider a Wheeler delayed-choice experiment based on the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer. Since the development of the causal interpretation of relativistic boson fields there have not been any applications for which the equations of motion for the field have been solved explicitly. Here, we provide perhaps the first application of the causal interpretation of boson fields for which the equations of motion are solved. Specifically, we consider the electromagnetic field. Solving the equations of motion allows us to develop a relativistic causal model of the Wheeler delayed-choice Mach-Zehnder I…
Experimental realization of Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment with dual selections
该实验基于纠缠光子实现了具有双重选择的惠勒延迟选择实验，通过路径编码同时控制两个分束器的存在与否，揭示了单光子的波粒行为及量子叠加态。
The quantum "mystery which cannot go away" (in Feynman's words) of wave-particle duality is illustrated in a striking way by Wheeler's delayed-choice GedankenExperiment. In this experiment, the configuration of a two-path interferometer is chosen after a single-photon pulse has entered it : either the interferometer is \textit{closed} (\textit{i.e.} the two paths are recombined) and the interference is observed, or the interferometer remains \textit{open} and the path followed by the photon is measured. We report an almost ideal realization of that GedankenExperiment, where the light pulses ar…
We present a computer simulation model that is a one-to-one copy of an experimental realization of Wheeler's delayed choice experiment that employs a single photon source and a Mach-Zehnder interferometer composed of a 50/50 input beam splitter and a variable output beam splitter with adjustable reflection coefficient $R$ (V. Jacques {\sl et al.}, Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 220402 (2008)). For $0\le R\le 0.5$, experimentally measured values of the interference visibility $V$ and the path distinguishability $D$, a parameter quantifying the which-path information WPI, are found to fulfill the complem…
It is pointed out that a slight variation on the Wheeler Delayed Choice Experiment presents the same challenge to orthodox quantum mechanics as Maudlin-type contingent absorber experiments present to the Transactional Interpretation (TI). Therefore, the latter cannot be used as a basis for refutation of TI.
Here, we present an analysis and interpretation of the experiment performed by Jacques et al. (2007 Science 315, 966), which represents a realization of Wheeler's delayed-choice Gedankenexperiment. Our analysis is based on the evolution of the photon state, since the photon enters into the Mach-Zehnder interferometer with a removable beam-splitter until it exits. Given the same incident photon state onto the output beam-splitter, BS_output, the photon's state at the exit will be very different depending on whether BS_output is on or off. Hence, the statistics of photon counts collected by the …
Wave-particle duality has become one of the flagships of quantum mechanics. This counter-intuitive concept is highlighted in a delayed choice experiment, where the experimental setup that reveals either the particle or wave nature of a quantum system is decided after the system has entered the apparatus. Here we consider delayed choice experiments from the perspective of device-independent causal models and show their equivalence to a prepare-and-measure scenario. Within this framework, we consider Wheeler's original proposal and its variant using a quantum control and show that a simple class…
It is well known that Wheeler proposed several delayed choice experiments in order to show the impossibility to speak of the way a quantum system behaves before being detected. In a double-slit experiment, when do photons decide to travel by one way or by two ways? Delayed choice experiments seem to indicate that, strangely, it is possible to change the decision of the photons until the very last moment before they are detected. This led Wheeler to his famous sentence: No elementary quantum phenomenon is a phenomenon until it is a registered phenomenon, brought to a close by an irreversible ac…
The interpretation of an experimental realization of Wheeler's delayed-choice gedanken experiment is discussed and called into question.
Wheeler's delayed choice experiment, a well known manifestation of the complementarity principle, has proved somewhat difficult to physically interpret. We show that, restated in quantum field theoretic language, the experiment submits to a simple explanation: that wave- or particle-nature is imposed not at the slit plane but at the detector system. The intepretational difficulty conventionally encountered is due to the assumption of enforcement of complementarity at the former.
Conditioning on the Future: A Filtration-Theoretic Formalization of Wheeler's Participatory Universe
本文通过滤过理论区分时间对称性与逆向因果，将惠勒的参与式宇宙形式化为选择效应，并构建对应词典，明确其不推导玻恩规则或解决测量问题。
We propose a new signaling system using the experimental setup of Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment previously carried out. In the delayed-choice experiment, the experimental setup shows a wave property or a particle property at the time when the experimental conditions of the wave-particle duality of photons are chosen. Choice signals can be used as transmitting signals and the wave-particle duality of photons is used as receiving signals. For example, if we choose the wave property of a photon as a transmitting signal, we detect the interference of the wave at the detector that can be used…
Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment was conceived to illustrate the paradoxical nature of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics. In the experiment, quantum light can exhibit either wave-like interference patterns or particle-like anti-correlations, depending upon the (possibly delayed) choice of the experimenter. A variant known as the quantum eraser uses entangled light to recover the lost interference in a seemingly nonlocal and retrocausal manner. Although it is believed that this behavior is incompatible with classical physics, here we show that the observed quantum phenomena can be r…
Quantum superposition is the cornerstone of quantum mechanics, where interference fringes originate in the self-interference of a single photon via indistinguishable photon characteristics. Wheeler delayed-choice experiments have been extensively studied for the wave-particle duality over the last several decades to understand the complementarity theory of quantum mechanics. The heart of the delayed-choice quantum eraser is in the mutually exclusive quantum feature violating the cause-effect relation. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the quantum eraser using coherent photon pairs by the del…
John Wheeler devised a gedanken experiment in which a piece of apparatus can be altered just before the arrival of particle, and this ``delayed choice'' can, seemingly, alter the quantum state of the particle at a much earlier time, long before the choice is made. A slightly different gedanken experiment, which exhibits the same conceptual difficulty, is analyzed using the techniques of consistent history quantum theory. The idea that the future influences the past disappears when proper account is taken of the diversity of possible quantum descriptions of the world, and their mutual compatibi…
The delayed choice experiments of the type introduced by Wheeler and extended by Englert, Scully, Süssmann and Walther [ESSW], and others, have formed a rich area for investigating the puzzling behaviour of particles undergoing quantum interference. The surprise provided by the original delayed choice experiment, led Wheeler to the conclusion that "no phenomenon is a phenomenon until it is an observed phenomenon", a radical explanation which implied that "the past has no existence except as it is recorded in the present". However Bohm, Dewdney and Hiley have shown that the Bohm interpretation …
We report an experimental test of complementarity using clock-triggered single-photon pulses emitted by an individual N-V color center in a diamond nanocrystal. The single photons are sent into a Mach-Zehnder interferometer with an output beamsplitter of adjustable reflection coefficient R. In addition, the choice of introducing or removing this beamsplitter is random and relativistically space-like separated from the entering of the photon inside the interferometer, as required for the Wheeler's delayed-choice regime. Each set value of R allows us to observe interference with visibility V and…
Delayed choice experiments: An analysis in forward time
本文基于教科书量子力学，前向时间分析了Wheeler经典思想实验和延迟量子擦除器，证明无需未来信息即可解释结果，且改变时间顺序的修改版会导致相同最终状态，说明场景在操作意义上完全等价。
In a three-particle extension of Wheeler's delayed choice gedanken experiment, the quantum statistics of two particles is undetermined until a third particle is measured. As a function of the measurement result, the particles behave either as bosons or as fermions. The particles are distinguishable if no measurement is performed at all or when the measurement is performed in a rotated basis. The scheme is based on Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger quantum correlations. It can be interpreted more generally as the encryption of maximally entangled states in a larger quantum superposition. The local qu…
Wave-particle duality constitutes one of the most intriguing features in quantum physics. A well-known gedanken experiment that provides evidence for this is the Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment based on a Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Many different versions of delayed-choice experiments have been conducted with both classical and quantum detecting devices. Recently, it was proposed that the delayed-choice experiment could be devised from the perspective of device-independent prepare-and-measure scenario. In our work, we experimentally realize this modified version with a deterministic sing…
Quantum systems exhibit particle-like or wave-like behaviour depending on the experimental apparatus they are confronted by. This wave-particle duality is at the heart of quantum mechanics, and is fully captured in Wheeler's famous delayed choice gedanken experiment. In this variant of the double slit experiment, the observer chooses to test either the particle or wave nature of a photon after it has passed through the slits. Here we report on a quantum delayed choice experiment, based on a quantum controlled beam-splitter, in which both particle and wave behaviours can be investigated simulta…
A coherence interpretation of nonlocal realism in the delayed-choice quantum eraser
本文用相干性解释延迟选择量子擦除器中类空间分离光子的非局域条纹，指出其源于符合探测引起的选择性测量和积基叠加，并强调固定和相位关系是传统粒子性量子力学无法解释的先决条件。
In this work we suggest a variant of the remarkable Wheeler's delayed choice gedanken experiment. In our experiment, single photon described by a superposition state with two terms dynamically interacts with an atom. Preparation of the atom in any of two excited states can be realized practically in the last moment before interaction. For atom in the first excited state there is practically none dynamical interaction between atom and photon so that the interference effects on the photon can be detected later by a photo plate. For atom in the second excited state dynamical interaction between p…
We describe an experimentally feasible protocol for performing a variant of the quantum delayed-choice experiment with massive objects. In this scheme, a single nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond driven by microwave fields is dispersively coupled to a massive mechanical resonator. A double-pulse Ramsey interferometer can be implemented with the spin-mechanical setup, where the second Ramsey microwave pulse drives the spin conditioned on the number states of the resonator. The probability for finding the NV center in definite spin states exhibits interference fringes when the mechanical re…
Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment delays the decision to observe either the wave or particle behavior of a photon until after it has entered the interferometer, and the quantum delayed-choice experiment provides the possibility of observing the wave and particle behavior simultaneously by introducing quantum control device. We here propose a modified quantum delayed-choice experiment without quantum control or entanglement assistance, in which a photon can be prepared in a wave-particle superposition state and the morphing behavior of wave-to-particle transition can be observed easily. It is…
It is argued that Wheeler's insightful idea of delayed choice experiments may be explored at a classical level, arising naturally from number-theoretical conjugacies always necessarily present in the equations of motion. For simple and representative systems, we illustrate how to cast the equations of motion in a form encoding all classical states simultaneously through a ``state parameter''. By suitably selecting the parameter one may project the system into any desired classical state.
The wave-particle duality dates back to Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect through quanta of light and de Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves. Quantum mechanics uses an abstract description for the behavior of physical systems such as photons, electrons, or atoms. Whether quantum predictions for single systems in an interferometric experiment allow an intuitive understanding in terms of the particle or wave picture, depends on the specific configuration which is being used. In principle, this leaves open the possibility that quantum systems always either behave definitely as a…
A corpuscular simulation model of optical phenomena that does not require the knowledge of the solution of a wave equation of the whole system and reproduces the results of Maxwell's theory by generating detection events one-by-one is discussed. The event-based corpuscular model gives a unified description of multiple-beam fringes of a plane parallel plate and single-photon Mach-Zehnder interferometer, Wheeler's delayed choice, photon tunneling, quantum eraser, two-beam interference, Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen-Bohm and Hanbury Brown-Twiss experiments. The approach is illustrated by application to…
Resource Estimation for Delayed Choice Quantum Entanglement Based Sneakernet Networks Using Neutral Atom qLDPC Memories
本文提出由中心方借助中性原子 qLDPC 量子存储器和延迟选择纠缠交换构建 sneakernet 量子网络，并证明其相较表面码具有更优资源扩展性。
A quantum system can behave as a wave or as a particle, depending on the experimental arrangement. When for example measuring a photon using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, the photon acts as a wave if the second beam-splitter is inserted, but as a particle if this beam-splitter is omitted. The decision of whether or not to insert this beam-splitter can be made after the photon has entered the interferometer, as in Wheeler's famous delayed-choice thought experiment. In recent quantum versions of this experiment, this decision is controlled by a quantum ancilla, while the beam splitter is itself…
Often cited dictums in Quantum Mechanics include "observation disturbance causes loss of interference" and "ignorance is interference". In this paper we propose and describe a series of experiments with modified Mach-Zehnder interferometers showing that one has to be careful when applying such dictums. We are able to show that without interacting in any way with the light quantum (or quanta) expected to behave "wave-like", interference fringes can be lost by simply gaining (or having the potential to gain) the which-path knowledge. Erasing this information may revive the interference fringes. …
Recent frameworks describing quantum mechanics in the absence of a global causal order admit the existence of causally indefinite processes, where it is impossible to ascribe causal order for events A and B. These frameworks even allow for processes that violate the so-called causal inequalities, which are analogous to Bell's inequalities. However, the physicality of these exotic processes is, in the general case, still under debate, bringing into question their foundational relevance. While it is known that causally indefinite processes can be probabilistically realised by means of a quantum …
Wave-particle duality epitomizes the counterintuitive character of quantum physics. A striking illustration is the quantum delay-choice experiment, which is based on Wheeler's classic delayed-choice gedanken experiment, but with the addition of a quantum-controlled device enabling wave-to-particle transitions. Here we realize a quantum delayed-choice experiment in which we control the wave and the particle states of photons and in particular the phase between them, thus directly establishing the created quantum nature of the wave-particle. We generate three-photon entangled states and inject o…
Famous double-slit or double-path experiments, implemented in a Young's or Mach-Zehnder interferometer, have confirmed the dual nature of quantum matter, When a stream of photons, neutrons, atoms, or molecules, passes through two slits, either wave-like interference fringes build up on a screen, or particle-like which-path distribution can be ascertained. These quantum objects exhibit both wave and particle properties but exclusively, depending on the way they are measured. In an equivalent Mach-Zehnder configuration, the object displays either wave or particle nature in the presence or absenc…
Gedanken experiments are important conceptual tools in the quest to reconcile our classical intuition with quantum mechanics and nowadays are routinely performed in the laboratory. An important open question is the quantum behaviour of the controlling devices in such experiments. We propose a framework to analyse quantum-controlled experiments and illustrate the implications by discussing a quantum version of Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment. The introduction of a quantum-controlled device (i.e., quantum beamsplitter) has several consequences. First, it implies that we can measure complemen…
Macroscopic delayed-choice and retrocausality: quantum eraser, Leggett-Garg and dimension witness tests with cat states
该研究提出用宏观量子比特（宏观可区分相干态叠加的猫态）开展延迟选择实验，测试量子擦除、Leggett-Garg和维度见证，探讨宏观逆因果性与弱宏观实在论的关系，揭示相关不等式违背及微观EPR悖论。
The locality problem of quantum measurements is considered in the framework of the algebraic approach. It is shown that contrary to the currently widespread opinion one can reconcile the mathematical formalism of the quantum theory with the assumption of the existence of a local physical reality determining the results of local measurements. The key quantum experiments: double-slit experiment on electron scattering, Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment, the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, and quantum teleportation are discussed from the locality-problem point of view. A clear physical interpre…
The Schrödinger's wave function can naturally be realized as an 'instantaneous resonant spatial mode' in which quantum particle moves and hence the Born's rule is derived after identifying its origin. This realization facilitates the visualization of `what's really going on?' in the Young's double-slit experiment which is known to be the central mystery of quantum mechanics. Also, an actual mechanism underlying the `spooky-action-at-a-distance', another mystery regarding the entangled quantum particles, is revealed. Wheeler's delayed choice experiments, delayed choice quantum eraser experiment…
Quantum delayed "choice" based on vectorially structured photon
提出利用单光子任意偏振叠加态实现量子延迟选择的新方案，使选择由光子自身状态在观测时作出，并观测到波粒特征渐变。
Complementarity, that is the ability of a quantum object to behave either as a particle or as a wave, is one of the most intriguing features of quantum mechanics. An exemplary Gedanken experiment, emphasizing such a measurement-dependent nature, was suggested by Wheeler using single photons. The subtleness of the idea lies in the fact that the output beam-splitter of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer is put in or removed after a photon has already entered the interferometer, thus performing a delayed test of the wave-particle complementary behavior. Recently, it was proposed that using a quantum a…
Bohmian mechanics, a hydrodynamic formulation of the quantum theory, constitutes a useful tool to understand the role of the phase as the mechanism responsible for the dynamical evolution displayed by quantum systems. This role is analyzed and discussed here in the context of quantum interference, considering to this end two well-known scenarios, namely Young's two-slit experiment and Wheeler's delayed choice experiment. A numerical implementation of the first scenario is used to show how interference in a coherent superposition of two counter-propagating wave packets can be seen and explained…
The main mystery of quantum mechanics is contained in Wheeler's delayed choice experiment, which shows that the past is determined by our choice of what quantum property to observe. This gives the observer a participatory role in deciding the past history of the universe. Wheeler extended this participatory role to the emergence of the physical laws ("law without law"). Since what we know about the universe comes in yes/no answers to our interrogations, this led him to the idea of "it from bit" (which includes the participatory role of the observer as a key component). The yes/no answers to ou…
Light's wave-particle duality is at the heart of quantum mechanics and can be well illustrated by Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment. The choice of inserting or removing the second classical (quantum) beam splitter in a Mach-Zehnder interferometer determines the classical (quantum) wave-particle behaviors of a photon. In this paper, we report our experiment using the classical beam splitter to observe the simultaneous wave-particle behaviors in the wave-packet of a narrowband single photon. This observation suggests that it is necessary to generalize the current quantum wave-particle duality …
Wave particle duality, also called complementarity, is deeply rooted in the heart of quantum theory. It is fully exemplified in the famous Wheeler's delayed choice experiment where the choice of the wave nature (ability to interfere) or the particle like behavior (path distinguishability) is introduced a posteriori. We perform here a delayed choice experiment in a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, using a classical laser beam and twisted light in a given mode. We entangle the polarization and the twisted internal degrees of freedom, with the which-path-information external degree of freedom of the …
Recently we proposed the linguistic interpretation of quantum mechanics (called quantum and classical measurement theory), which was characterized as a kind of metaphysical and linguistic turn of the Copenhagen interpretation. This turn from physics to language does not only extend quantum theory to classical systems but also yield the quantum mechanical world view (i.e., quantum philosophy or quantum language). The purpose of this paper is to formulate the double-slit experiment, the quantum eraser experiment, Wheeler's delayed choice experiment, Hardy's paradox and the three boxes paradox (t…
According to Bohr's principle of complementarity, a quanton can behave either as a wave or a particle, depending on the choice of the experimental setup. Some recent two-path interference experiments have devised methods where one can have a quantum superposition of the two choices, thus indicating that a quanton may be in a superposition of wave and particle nature. These experiments have been of interest from the point of view of Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment. However, it has also been claimed that this experiment can violate complementarity. Here we theoretically analyze a multipath i…
We discuss a discrete-event, particle-based simulation approach which reproduces the statistical distributions of Maxwell's theory and quantum theory by generating detection events one-by-one. This event-based approach gives a unified cause-and-effect description of quantum optics experiments such as single-photon Mach-Zehnder interferometer, Wheeler's delayed choice, quantum eraser, double-slit, Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen-Bohm and Hanbury Brown-Twiss experiments, and various neutron interferometry experiments at a level of detail which is not covered by conventional quantum theoretical descripti…
Proposal for Sequential Stern-Gerlach Experiment with Programmable Quantum Processors
本研究提出利用适配含噪声硬件的参数化浅量子电路，在十字形可编程量子处理器上模拟序列斯特恩-盖拉赫实验，可同时实现维格纳干涉仪与惠勒延迟选择实验，仿真符合理论，可云端部署，拓展量子计算应用并深化量子基础理解。
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