Christof Zalka
This is a short introduction to Quantum Computing intended for physicists. The basic idea of a quantum computer is introduced. Then we concentrate on Shor's integer factoring algorithm.
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We suggest that quantum computers can solve quantum many-body problems that are impracticable to solve on a classical computer.
Could the theories with hidden variables be employed for creation of a quantum computer? A particular scheme of quasiclassical model quantum computer structure is describe.
Do quantum computers already exist in Nature? It is proposed that they do. Photosynthesis is one example in which a 'quantum computer' component may play a role in the 'classical' world of complex biological systems. A 'translation' of the standard metabolic description of the 'front-end' light harvesting complex in photosynthesis into the language of quantum computers is presented. Biological systems represent an untapped resource for thinking about the design and operation of hybrid quantum-classical computers and expanding our current conceptions of what defines a 'quantum computer' in Natu…
In this paper, we firstly briefly review the duality quantum computer. Distinctly, the generalized quantum gates, the basic evolution operators in a duality quantum computer are no longer unitary, and they can be expressed in terms of linear combinations of unitary operators. All linear bounded operators can be realized in a duality quantum computer, and unitary operators are just the extreme points of the set of generalized quantum gates. A d-slits duality quantum computer can be realized in an ordinary quantum computer with an additional qudit using the duality quantum computing mode. Dualit…
We demonstrate an implementation of a quantum search algorithm on a two qubit NMR quantum computer based on cytosine.
Quantum computer possesses quantum parallelism and offers great computing power over classical computer \cite{er1,er2}. As is well-know, a moving quantum object passing through a double-slit exhibits particle wave duality. A quantum computer is static and lacks this duality property. The recently proposed duality computer has exploited this particle wave duality property, and it may offer additional computing power \cite{r1}. Simply put it, a duality computer is a moving quantum computer passing through a double-slit. A duality computer offers the capability to perform separate operations on t…
We describe a quantum computer emulator for a generic, general purpose quantum computer. This emulator consists of a simulator of the physical realization of the quantum computer and a graphical user interface to program and control the simulator. We illustrate the use of the quantum computer emulator through various implementations of the Deutsch-Jozsa and Grover's database search algorithm.
The Noiseless Quantum Computer Does Not Exist
本文证明量子计算机中任何逻辑门都信息依赖于另一逻辑门，从而论证无噪声量子计算机不可能存在。
A Quantum Computer is a new type of computer which can efficiently solve complex problems such as prime factorization. A quantum computer threatens the security of public key encryption systems because these systems rely on the fact that prime factorization is computationally difficult. Errors limit the effectiveness of quantum computers. Because of the exponential nature of quantum com puters, simulating the effect of errors on them requires a vast amount of processing and memory resources. In this paper we describe a parallel simulator which accesses the feasibility of quantum computers. We …
This paper shows that universal quantum computers possess decoherent histories in which complex adaptive systems evolve with high probability.
Quantum computers are discussed in the general framework of computation, the laws of physics and the foundations of quantum mechanics.
The halting of universal quantum computers is shown to be incompatible with the constraint of unitarity of the dynamics.
We study how to implement quantum stochastic differential equations (QSDEs) on a quantum computer. This is illustrated by an implementation of the QSDE that couples a laser driven two-level atom to the electromagnetic field in the vacuum state on the IBMqx4 Tenerife computer. We compare the resulting master equation and quantum filtering equations to existing theory. In this way we characterize the performance of the computer.
This paper has been withdrawn, and will be superseded by another submission.
An error correcting mechanism is proposed in the context of the Quantum Interference Computer approach
We study effects of the physical realization of quantum computers on their logical operation. Through simulation of physical models of quantum computer hardware, we analyze the difficulties that are encountered in programming physical realizations of quantum computers. Examples of logically identical implementations of the controlled-NOT operation and Grover's database search algorithm are used to demonstrate that the results of a quantum computation are unstable with respect to the physical realization of the quantum computer. We discuss the origin of these instabilities and discuss possibili…
We study effects of the physical realization of quantum computers on their logical operation. Through simulation of physical models of quantum computer hardware, we analyse the difficulties that are encountered in programming physical implementations of quantum computers. We discuss the origin of the instabilities of quantum algorithms and explore physical mechanisms to enlarge the region(s) of stable operation.
An experiment is proposed to test the interference aspect of the Quantum Interference Computer approach
A method is described for calculating the heat generated in a quantum computer due to loss of quantum phase information. Amazingly enough, this heat generation can take place at zero temperature. and may explain why it is impossible to extract energy from vacuum fluctuations. Implications for optical computers and quantum cosmology are also briefly discussed.
The Halting problem of a quantum computer is considered. It is shown that if halting of a quantum computer takes place the associated dynamics is described by an irreversible operator.
Construction of virtual quantum states became possible due to the hypothesis on the nature of quantum states quant-ph/0212139. This study considers a stochastic geometrical background (stochastic gravitational background) generating correlation (or, coherency) of various quantum non-interacting objects. In the quantum state virtual model, a simple method of generating of two (or more) dichotomic signals with controlled mutual correlation factor from a single continuous stochastic process is implemented. Basing on the system random number generator of the computer, a model of the stationary ran…
A computational problem fed into a gate-model quantum computer identifies an objective function with a particular computational pathway (objective function connectivity). The solution of the computational problem involves identifying a target objective function value that is the subject to be reached. A bottleneck in a gate-model quantum computer is the requirement of several rounds of quantum state preparations, high-cost run sequences, and multiple rounds of measurements to determine a target (optimal) state of the quantum computer that achieves the target objective function value. Here, we …
Universal quantum computers are the only general purpose quantum computers known that can be implemented as of today. These computers consist of a classical memory component which controls the quantum memory. In this paper, the space complexity of some data stream problems, such as PartialMOD and Equality, is investigated on universal quantum computers. The quantum algorithms for these problems are believed to outperform their classical counterparts. Universal quantum computers, however, need classical bits for controlling quantum gates in addition to qubits. Our analysis shows that the number…
We argue that the halting problem for quantum computers which was first raised by Myers, is by no means solved, as has been claimed recently. We explicitly demonstrate the difficulties that arise in a quantum computer when different branches of the computation halt at different, unknown, times.
We present a framework that utilizes quantum algorithms, an architecture aware quantum noise model and an ideal simulator to benchmark quantum computers. The benchmark metrics highlight the difference between the quantum computer evolution and the simulated noisy and ideal quantum evolutions. We utilize our framework for benchmarking three IBMQ systems. The use of multiple algorithms, including continuous-time ones, as benchmarks stresses the computers in different ways highlighting their behaviour for a diverse set of circuits. The complexity of each quantum circuit affects the efficiency of …
We demonstrate the implementation of a quantum algorithm for estimating the number of matching items in a search operation using a two qubit nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) quantum computer.
By numerically simulating an implementation of the quantum baker's map on a 3-qubit NMR quantum computer based on the molecule trichloroethylene, we demonstrate the feasibility of quantum chaos experiments on present-day quantum computers. We give detailed descriptions of proposed experiments that investigate (a) the rate of entropy increase due to decoherence and (b) the phenomenon of hypersensitivity to perturbation.
Local implementation of non-local quantum gates is necessary in a distributed quantum computer. Here, we demonstrate the non-local implementation of controlled-unitary quantum gates proposed by Eisert et al. (Phys Rev A 62:052317, 2000) using the five-qubit IBM quantum computer. We verify the fidelity and accuracy of the implementation through the techniques of quantum state and process tomographies.
The quantum computer algorithm by Peter Shor for factorization of integers is studied. The quantum nature of a QC makes its outcome random. The output probability distribution is investigated and the chances of a successful operation is determined
This paper has been superseded by quant-ph/9908074.
Benchmarking is how the performance of a computing system is determined. Surprisingly, even for classical computers this is not a straightforward process. One must choose the appropriate benchmark and metrics to extract meaningful results. Different benchmarks test the system in different ways and each individual metric may or may not be of interest. Choosing the appropriate approach is tricky. The situation is even more open ended for quantum computers, where there is a wider range of hardware, fewer established guidelines, and additional complicating factors. Notably, quantum noise significa…
We demonstrate a strategy for implementation a quantum full adder in a spin chain quantum computer. As an example, we simulate a quantum full adder in a chain containing 201 spins. Our simulations also demonstrate how one can minimize errors generated by non-resonant effects.
We show how periodized wavelet packet transforms and periodized wavelet transforms can be implemented on a quantum computer. Surprisingly, we find that the implementation of wavelet packet transforms is less costly than the implementation of wavelet transforms on a quantum computer.
We show how a quantum computer can be employed to elucidate reaction mechanisms in complex chemical systems, using the open problem of biological nitrogen fixation in nitrogenase as an example. We discuss how quantum computers can augment classical-computer simulations for such problems, to significantly increase their accuracy and enable hitherto intractable simulations. Detailed resource estimates show that, even when taking into account the substantial overhead of quantum error correction, and the need to compile into discrete gate sets, the necessary computations can be performed in reason…
Does True Randomness Exist? Efficacy Testing IBM Quantum Computers via Statistical Randomness
本文提出利用量子随机数生成与十八项统计测试评估量子计算机效能，并对九台 IBM 系统测试，发现仅一个计算机—算法组合通过统计随机性检验。
We propose a quantum computer structure based on coupled asymmetric single-electron quantum dots. Adjacent dots are strongly coupled by means of electric dipole-dipole interactions enabling rapid computation rates. Further, the asymmetric structures can be tailored for a long coherence time. The result maximizes the number of computation cycles prior to loss of coherence.
We propose a parallel quantum computing mode for ensemble quantum computer. In this mode, some qubits can be in pure states while other qubits in mixed states. It enables a single ensemble quantum computer to perform $"$single-instruction-multi-data" type of parallel computation. In Grover's algorithm and Shor's algorithm, parallel quantum computing can provide additional speedup. In addition, it also makes a fuller use of qubit resources in an ensemble quantum computer. As a result, some qubits discarded in the preparation of an effective pure state in the Schulman-Varizani, and the Cleve-DiV…
Quantum simulation can beat current classical computers with minimally a few tens of qubits and will likely become the first practical use of a quantum computer. One promising application of quantum simulation is to attack challenging quantum chemistry problems. Here we report an experimental demonstration that a small nuclear-magnetic-resonance (NMR) quantum computer is already able to simulate the dynamics of a prototype chemical reaction. The experimental results agree well with classical simulations. We conclude that the quantum simulation of chemical reaction dynamics not computable on cu…
We describe a quantum algorithm to compute the density of states and thermal equilibrium properties of quantum many-body systems. We present results obtained by running this algorithm on a software implementation of a 21-qubit quantum computer for the case of an antiferromagnetic Heisenberg model on triangular lattices of different size.
Adaptive Quantum Computers: decoding and state preparation
本文提出自适应量子计算机模型，证明其在损坏数据解码上优于经典计算机，并给出高效制备均匀叠加态、GHZ态、W态和Dicke态的自适应量子算法，理论与硬件实验验证其优势。
This work uses a simple quantum computer model to discuss the randomness of bit strings originated from integer sequences. The considered quantum computer model has three elements: a processing unit responsible for a mathematical operation, an initial equally weighted superposition and a quantum state used as resource. The randomness depends on the last.
We discuss whether, to what extent and how a quantum computing device can be evaluated and simulated using classical tools.
In this paper we present the computational model underlying the one-way quantum computer which we introduced recently [Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 5188 (2001)]. The one-way quantum computer has the property that any quantum logic network can be simulated on it. Conversely, not all ways of quantum information processing that are possible with the one-way quantum computer can be understood properly in network model terms. We show that the logical depth is, for certain algorithms, lower than has so far been known for networks. For example, every quantum circuit in the Clifford group can be performed on …
The development of universal quantum computers has achieved remarkable success in recent years, culminating with the quantum supremacy reported by Google. Now is possible to implement short-depth quantum circuits with dozens of qubits and to obtain results with significant fidelity. Quantum walks are good candidates to be implemented on the available quantum computers. In this work, we implement discrete-time quantum walks with one and two interacting walkers on cycles, two-dimensional lattices, and complete graphs on IBM quantum computers. We are able to obtain meaningful results using the cy…
In quantum information theory, entropic inequalities act as the necessary and sufficient conditions to noncontextuality. Here, we first experimentally demonstrate the violation of the entropic noncontextual inequality in a four-level quantum system, by using the five-qubit IBM quantum computer. The experimental result disproves the existence of a local realist model.
The class of two-qubit Bell-diagonal states has been the workhorse for developing understanding about the geometry, dynamics, and applications of quantum resources. In this article, we present a quantum circuit for preparing Bell-diagonal states on a quantum computer in a tunable way. We implement this quantum circuit using the IBM Q 5 Yorktown quantum computer and, as an application example, we measure the non-local, steering, entanglement, and discord quantum correlations and non-local quantum coherence of Werner states.
The paper has been withdrawn
This is a position paper written as an introduction to the special volume on quantum algorithms I edited for the journal Mathematical Structures in Computer Science (Volume 20 - Special Issue 06 (Quantum Algorithms), 2010).
We propose protocols for determining the distances in Hilbert space between pure and mixed quantum states prepared on a quantum computer. In the case of pure quantum states, the protocol is based on measuring the square of modulus of scalar product between certain states. Determination of the distance between mixed quantum states is reduced to measuring the squares of modules of scalar products between all pure states included in the mixed states. In addition, we develop a protocol that allows one to determine the speed of evolution of the spin system simulated by a quantum computer. These pro…
We show that the lambda-q calculus can efficiently simulate quantum Turing machines by showing how the lambda-q calculus can efficiently simulate a class of quantum cellular automaton that are equivalent to quantum Turing machines. We conclude by noting that the lambda-q calculus may be strictly stronger than quantum computers because NP-complete problems such as satisfiability are efficiently solvable in the lambda-q calculus but there is a widespread doubt that they are efficiently solvable by quantum computers.
The DiVincenzo criteria for implementing a quantum computer have been seminal in focussing both experimental and theoretical research in quantum information processing. These criteria were formulated specifically for the circuit model of quantum computing. However, several new models for quantum computing (paradigms) have been proposed that do not seem to fit the criteria well. The question is therefore what are the general criteria for implementing quantum computers. To this end, a formal operational definition of a quantum computer is introduced. It is then shown that according to this defin…
We propose a magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM)-based nuclear spin quantum computer using tellurium impurities in silicon. This approach to quantum computing combines the well-developed silicon technology with expected advances in MRFM.
I comment on GianCarlo Ghirardi's criticism of my claim that quantum computation has no measurement problem.
Cloud-based quantum computers have become a reality with a number of companies allowing for cloud-based access to their machines with tens to more than 100 qubits. With easy access to quantum computers, quantum information processing will potentially revolutionize computation, and superconducting transmon-based quantum computers are among some of the more promising devices available. Cloud service providers today host a variety of these and other prototype quantum computers with highly diverse device properties, sizes, and performances. The variation that exists in today's quantum computers, e…
In ensemble (or bulk) quantum computation, measurements of qubits in an individual computer cannot be performed. Instead, only expectation values can be measured. As a result of this limitation on the model of computation, various important algorithms cannot be processed directly on such computers, and must be modified. We provide modifications of various existing protocols, including algorithms for universal fault--tolerant computation, Shor's factorization algorithm (which can be extended to any algorithm computing an NP function), and some search algorithms to enable processing them on ense…
First Practical Experiences Integrating Quantum Computers with HPC Resources: A Case Study With a 20-qubit Superconducting Quantum Computer
本文报告了将20-qubit超导量子计算机集成到LRZ的HPC基础设施中的实践经验，总结了设施要求、动态校准、冗余基础设施和用户培训四个关键教训，为未来HPC+QC集成提供了路线图。
The mapping of quantum circuits to qubits represented by ion states in a storage ring quantum computer is examined. Serial, parallel and hybrid architectures for mapping such qubits onto a storage ring quantum computer are presented. Parallelism is an important part of the SRQC architecture in terms of multiple ions, windows and lasers. A "predecessor problem" that arises in such architectures is identified and a solution is proposed. Representative numerical sizing and timing calculations are presented. The entire methodology is very general and extends to several implementation options. Open…
Quantum computers are the promising candidates for simulation of large quantum systems, which is a daunting task to perform in a classical computer. Here, we report the experimental realization of quantum tunneling of a single particle through different types of potential barriers by performing digital quantum simulations using IBM quantum computers. We consider two and three-qubit systems to visualize the tunneling process and illustrate its unique quantum nature. We observe the tunneling and oscillations of the particles in a step-well, double-well, and multi-well potentials through our expe…
In this article, we propose a general principle of quantum interference for quantum system, and based on this we propose a new type of computing machine, the duality computer, that may outperform in principle both classical computer and the quantum computer. According to the general principle of quantum interference, the very essence of quantum interference is the interference of the sub-waves of the quantum system itself. A quantum system considered here can be any quantum system: a single microscopic particle, a composite quantum system such as an atom or a molecule, or a loose collection of…
In a post-quantum world, where attackers may have access to full-scale quantum computers, all classical password-based authentication schemes will be compromised. Quantum copy-protection prevents adversaries from making copies of existing quantum software; we suggest this as a possible approach for designing post-quantum-secure password authentication systems. In this paper, we show an implementation of quantum copy-protection for password verification on IBM quantum computers. We also share our quantum computation results and analyses, as well as lessons learned.
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