Aephraim M. Steinberg
The question in the title may be answered by considering the outcome of a ``weak measurement'' in the sense of Aharonov et al. Various properties of the resulting time are discussed, including its close relation to the Larmor times. It is a universal description of a broad class of measurement interactions, and its physical implications are unambiguous.
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We show that it is impossible to determine the time a tunneling particle spends under the barrier. However, it is possible to determine the asymptotic time, i.e., the time the particle spends in a large area including the barrier. We propose a model of time measurements. The model provides a procedure for calculation of the asymptotic tunneling and reflection times. The model also demonstrates the impossibility of determination of the time the tunneling particle spends under the barrier. Examples for delta-form and rectangular barrier illustrate the obtained results.
This paper revisited quantum tunneling dynamics through a square double-barrier potential. We emphasized the similarity of tunneling dynamics through double-barrier and that of optical Fabry--P$\acute{e}$rot (FP) interferometer. Based on this similarity, we showed that the well-known resonant tunneling can also be interpreted as a result of matter multi-wave interference, analogous to that of FP interferometer. From this analogy, we also got an analytical finesse formula of double-barrier. Compared with that obtained numerically for a specific barrier configuration, we found that this formula …
Partial and full tunneling processes across potential barriers
本文提出部分与完全隧穿过程的概念，利用到达时间算子理论分析量子粒子穿越势垒，指出完全隧穿瞬时完成而部分隧穿耗时非零，从而解释了文献中非零与零隧穿时间的矛盾。
We consider a symmetric double barrier heterostructure enclosing a well and propose a solution for the transmission problem using a generalized WKB approach which accounts for the amplitude suppression and phase shift due to the barriers. This approach allows us to address both off-resonance and resonance cases and, in the latter case, verify the coherent destruction of tunneling.
Tunneling of electrons through a barrier with complex potential is investigated. We focus on two cases, symmetric double rectangular barrier and double delta potential barrier, and give expressions for resonant transmission probability for both cases. Expressions for reflection amplitude and absorption are also obtained in the case of delta potential. It will be shown that for given dimensions of the potential barrier and the real part of the potential, resonant transmission probability approaches infinity for only one positive value of the imaginary part of the potential.
Quantum mechanics predicts an exponentially small probability that a particle with energy greater than the height of a potential barrier will nevertheless reflect from the barrier in violation of classical expectations. This process can be regarded as tunneling in momentum space, leading to a simple derivation of the reflection probability.
Quantum tunneling through an almost classical potential barrier can be strongly enhanced by a nonstationary field so that the penetration through the barrier becomes not exponentially small. This constitutes an extremely unusual phenomenon of quantum physics called Euclidean resonance. A certain nonstationary barrier is proposed with a very low WKB tunneling rate. The quantum dynamics of this barrier is mapped on resonant tunneling across a static double barrier with a resonant level inside. The real penetration through the dynamical barrier is not exponentially small providing an example of E…
How much time does a tunneling particle spend in a barrier? A Larmor clock, one proposal to answer this question, measures the interaction between the particle and the barrier region using an auxiliary degree of freedom of the particle to clock the dwell time inside the barrier. We report on precise Larmor time measurements of ultra-cold $^{87}$Rb atoms tunneling through an optical barrier, which confirm longstanding predictions of tunneling times. We observe that atoms generally spend less time tunneling through higher barriers and that this time decreases for lower energy particles. For the …
The transmission of wave packets through tunneling barriers is studied in detail by the method of quantum molecular dynamics. The distribution function of the times describing the arrival of a tunneling packet in front of and behind a barrier and the momentum distribution function of the packet are calculated. The behavior of the average coordinate of a packet, the average momentum, and their variances is investigated. It is found that under the barrier a part of the packet is reflected and a Gaussian barrier increases the average momentum of the transmitted packet and its variance in momentum…
Time-dependent analytical solutions to Schrödinger's equation with quantum shutter initial conditions are used to investigate the issue of the tunneling time of forerunners in rectangular potential barriers. By using a time-frequency analysis, we find the existence of a regime characterized by the opacity of the barrier, where the maximum peak of a forerunner measured at the barrier transmission edge $x=L$ corresponds to a genuine tunneling process. The corresponding time scale represents the tunneling time of the forerunner through the classically forbidden region.
We study the tunneling of slow quantum packets through a high Coulomb barrier. We show that the transmission coefficient can be quite different from the standard expression obtained in the plane wave (WKB) approximation (and larger by many orders of magnitude), even if the momentum dispersion is much smaller than the mean value of the momentum.
Using a recently developed formalism of quantization of radiation in the presence of absorbing dielectric bodies, the problem of photon tunneling through absorbing barriers is studied. The multilayer barriers are described in terms of multistep complex permittivities in the frequency domain which satisfy the Kramers--Kronig relations. From the resulting input--output relations it is shown that losses in the layers may considerably change the photon tunneling times observed in two-photon interference experiments. It is further shown that for sufficiently large numbers of layers interference fri…
In this paper, the interaction and transmission time of quantum density solitons waves representing particles passing through finite barrier potentials is investigated. Using the conservation of energy and of quantum density, it is first demonstrated that these waves have finite de Broglie wavelength and represent particles in quantum theory. The passage of the quantum density solitons (particles) through barriers of finite energies is then shown to lead to the phenomena of resonant tunneling and, in Josephson-like configurations, to the quantization of magnetic flux. A precise general measure…
An explicit expression is obtained for the phase-time corresponding to tunneling of a (non-relativistic) particle through two rectangular barriers, both in the case of resonant and in the case of non-resonant tunneling. It is shown that the behavior of the transmission coefficient and of the tunneling phase-time near a resonance is given by expressions with "Breit-Wigner type" denominators. By contrast, it is shown that, when the tunneling probability is low (but not negligible), the non-resonant tunneling time depends on the barrier width and on the distance between the barriers only in a ver…
I show that the MacColl-Hartman effect, namely, the saturation of the group delay time of sub-barrier quantum tunneling as a function of the barrier width, comes from the saturating behavior of a more fundamental concept - the phase of the stationary wave function. The explanation of saturation is given based on the decomposition of the stationary wave function into the spectrum of wave numbers and formulation of the initial condition for the direction of propagation of the incident matter wave. It is also shown that the saturation plateau of MacColl and Hartman actually doesn't continue indef…
In this work we revisit the Salecker-Wigner-Peres clock formalism and show that it can be directly applied to the phenomenon of tunneling. Then we apply this formalism to the determination of the tunneling time of a non relativistic wavepacket, sharply concentrated around a tunneling energy, incident on a symmetric double barrier potential. In order to deepen the discussion about the generalized Hartmann effect, we consider the case in which the clock runs only when the particle can be found inside the region \emph{between} the barriers and show that, whenever the probability to find the parti…
How quantum tunneling will behave when the singularity is preserved as much as possible is the main question of this paper. We get that the Coulomb sibgularity is reflected as infinitly accelerated oscillations in the transmission coefficient between zero and one when the incident particles energy approaches the zero boundary. At relatively high energies, the tunneling acqures the caracter inherent in regular potentials, and becomes completly transparent in the asymptote.
The problem of wave packet tunneling from a parabolic potential well through a barrier represented by a power potential is considered in the case when the barrier height is much greater than the oscillator ground state energy, and the difference between the average energy of the packet and the nearest oscillator eigenvalue is sufficiently small. The universal Poisson distribution of the partial tunneling rates from the oscillator energy levels is discovered. The explicit expressions for the tunneling rates of different types of packets (coherent, squeezed, even/odd, thermal, etc.) are given in…
Universal Behavior of Tunneling Time and Barrier Time-Delay Decoupling in Attoclock Measurements
针对隧穿时延测量的争议问题，本研究发现隧穿时间具有普适解耦特性，提出通过绝热与非绝热隧道电离时延差定义测定势垒隧穿时延的方法，且结果与实验吻合，并验证弱测量极限下势垒时延对应拉莫尔钟时间与势垒内相互作用时间。
We analyze the performance of simulated quantum annealing (SQA) on an optimization problem for which simulated classical annealing (SA) is provably inefficient because of a high energy barrier. We present evidence that SQA can pass through this barrier to find the global minimum efficiently. This demonstrates the potential for SQA to inherit some of the advantages of quantum annealing (QA), since this problem has been previously shown to be efficiently solvable by quantum adiabatic optimization.
We study the relativistic quantum mechanical problem of a Dirac particle tunneling through two successive electrostatic barriers. Our aim is to study the emergence of the so-called \emph{Generalized Hartman Effect}, an effect observed in the context of nonrelativistic tunneling as well as in its electromagnetic counterparts, and which is often associated with the possibility of superluminal velocities in the tunneling process. We discuss the behavior of both the phase (or group) tunneling time and the dwell time, and show that in the limit of opaque barriers the relativistic theory also allows…
In the case of tunneling of relativistic particles, differently from the nonrelativistic case, a limit of "transparent" barrier can also lead to an apparent "superluminal" behavior when considering the phase time. In this limit, the restricting condition of "opaque" barrier of the nonrelativistic case is avoided, nevertheless, the very thin width of a single barrier to obtain this "transparent" limit can result in a problem itself, for probing the effect. A combination of two successive transparent barriers can show an apparent "superluminal" behavior along a macroscopic arbitrary distance "L"…
Klein tunneling through an asymmetric barrier: Symmetric transmission and directional pair creation
研究通过非对称势垒的克莱因隧穿，证明左右入射传输概率相同，利用含时维格纳函数模拟确定势垒内部方向性，指出克莱因区域定向控制在于对产生而非传输电流。
We study a transmission coefficient of graphene nanoribbons with a top gate which acts as an oblique barrier. Using a Green function method based on the Dirac-like equation, scattering among transverse modes due to the oblique barrier is taken into account numerically. In contrast to the 2-dimensional graphene sheet, we find that the pattern of transmission in graphene ribbons depends strongly on the electronic structure in the region of the barrier. Consequently, irregular structures in the transmission coefficient are predicted while perfect transmission is still calculated in the case of me…
Transient {\it time-domain resonances} found recently in time-dependent solutions to Schrödinger's equation are used to investigate the issue of the tunneling time in rectangular potential barriers. In general, a time frequency analysis shows that these transients have frequencies above the cutoff frequency associated with the barrier height, and hence correspond to non-tunneling processes. We find, however, a regime characterized by the barrier opacity, where the peak maximum $t_{max}$ of the {\it time-domain resonance} corresponds to under-the-barrier tunneling. We argue that $t_{max}$ repre…
The particle approach to one-dimensional potential scattering is applied to non relativistic tunnelling between two, three and four identical barriers. We demonstrate as expected that the infinite sum of particle contributions yield the plane wave results. In particular, the existence of resonance/transparency for twin tunnelling in the wave limit is immediately obvious. The known resonances for three and four barriers are also derived. The transition from the wave limit to the particle limit is exhibit numerically.
We study the asymptotic behavior of the spectral gap of simple barrier tunneling problems, which are related to using quantum annealing to find the global optimum of cost functions defined over n bits. Specifically we look at the problem of having an n qubit system tunnel through a barrier of width and height proportional to n^a. We show that with these quantum annealing problems, the asymptotic, $n\to\infty$, behavior of the spectral gap does not accurately describe the behavior of the gap at finite n until extremely large values of n (n>10^{12}). We prove that this deficiency of the asymptot…
The Larmor precession of a neutral spinning particle in a magnetic field confined to the region of a one dimensional-rectangular barrier is investigated for both a nonrelativistic and a relativistic incoming particle. The spin precession serves as a clock to measure the time spent by a quantum particle traversing a potential barrier. With the help of general spin coherent state it is explicitly shown that the precession time is equal to the dwell time in both the nonrelativistic and relativistic cases. We also present a numerical estimation of the precession time showing an apparent superlumin…
We propose a scheme of the exact fast-forwarding of standard quantum dynamics for a charged particle. The present idea allows the acceleration of both the amplitude and phase of the wave function throughout the fast-forward time range and is distinct from that of Masuda-Nakamura (e.g., Proc. R. Soc. A {\bf 466}, 1135 (2010)) which enabled acceleration of only the amplitude of the wave function on the way. We shall apply the proposed method to the quantum tunneling phenomena and obtain the electro-magnetic field to ensure the rapid penetration of wave functions through a tunneling barrier. Typi…
The problem of inter-band tunneling in a semiconductor (Zener breakdown) in a nonstationary and homogeneous electric field is solved exactly. Using the exact analytical solution, the approximation based on classical trajectories is studied. A new mechanism of enhanced tunneling through static non-one-dimensional barriers is proposed in addition to well known normal tunneling solely described by a trajectory in imaginary time. Under certain conditions on the barrier shape and the particle energy, the probability of enhanced tunneling is not exponentially small even for non-transparent barriers,…
We analyze the tunneling of a particle through a repulsive potential resulting from an inverted harmonic oscillator in the quantum mechanical phase space described by the Wigner function. In particular, we solve the partial differential equations in phase space determining the Wigner function of an energy eigenstate of the inverted oscillator. The reflection or transmission coefficients $R$ or $T$ are then given by the total weight of all classical phase space trajectories corresponding to energies below, or above the top of the barrier given by the Wigner function.
The Larmor precession of a relativistic neutral spin-1/2 particle in a uniform constant magnetic field confined to the region of a one-dimensional arbitrary potential barrier is investigated. The spin precession serves as a clock to measure the time spent by a quantum particle traversing a potential barrier. With the help of general spin coherent state it is explicitly shown that the precession time is equal to the dwell time.
Tunneling delay times of wavepackets in quantum mechanical penetration of rectangular barriers have long been known to show a perplexing independence with respect to the width of the barrier. This also has relevence to the transmission of evanescent waves in optics. Some authors have claimed that in the presence of absorption or inelastic channels (which they model by taking a complex barrier potential) this effect no longer exists, in that the time delay becomes proportional to the barrier width. Taking the point of view that complex potentials imply non-Hermitian Hamiltonians and are as such…
Quantum tunneling across multiple barriers as yet is an unsolved problem for barrier numbers greater than five. The complexity of the mathematical analysis even for small number of barriers pushed it into the realms of Numerical Analysis. This work is aimed at providing a rigorously correct solution to the general N barrier problem, where N can be any positive integer. An exact algebraic solution has been presented, which overcomes the complexity of the WKB integrals that are traditionally employed, and matches the earlier results reported for small number of barriers. The solution has been ex…
We calculate the tunneling process of a Dirac particle across two square barriers separated a distance $d$, as well as the scattering by a double cusp barrier where the centers of the cusps are separated a distance larger than their screening lengths. Using the scattering matrix formalism, we obtain the transmission and reflection amplitudes for the scattering processes of both configurations. We show that, the presence of transmission resonances modifies the Lorentizian shape of the energy resonances and induces the appearance of additional maxima in the transmission coefficient in the range …
Dwell time for a two state particle tunneling through a noisy thermal magnetic barrier has been calculated by studying the time evolution of the system. The effect of temperature has been included by averaging over the environmental magnetic modes. The time scale has been calculated in the framework of weak measurement. The dwell time initially increases with the rise of temperature and finally saturates. The increment of dwell time can be explained by the phenomena of quantum memory loss caused by efficient energy exchange with the environmental modes. The saturation region at higher temperat…
We study under-barrier tunneling for a pair of energetically bound bosonic atoms in an optical lattice with a barrier. We identify conditions under which this exotic molecule tunnels as a point particle with the coordinate given by the bound pair center of mass and discuss the atomic co-tunneling beyond this regime. In particular, we quantitatively analyze resonantly enhanced co-tunneling, where two interacting atoms penetrate the barrier with higher probability than a single atom.
Towards spintronics via tunneling through asymmetric barriers
该研究展示了一种简单设置中可产生方向自旋电流的方法，通过在封闭链中引入不对称势垒几何结构，即使初始配置对称，也能产生自旋分辨的环形电流。
Transient tunneling effects in triple barrier systems are investigated by considering a time-dependent solution to the Schrödinger equation with a cutoff wave initial condition. We derive a two-level formula for incidence energies $E$ near the first resonance doublet of the system. Based on that expression we find that the probability density along the internal region of the potential, is governed by three oscillation frequencies: one of them refers to the well known Bohr frequency, given in terms of the first and second resonance energies of the doublet, and the two others, represent a coupli…
The Zeno time has been calculated for a metastable two level atom tunneling through a interacting thermal magnetic field. The process of weak measurement has been utilized for the the estimation of the timescale. The temperature dependence of the Zeno time has been shown. From the calculation it is evident that the Zeno time decreases with the increase of temperature. Moreover, the result restricts the Zeno time to a maximum limiting value, irrespective of how frequent is the measurement process.
We calculate the time taken by a wave packet to travel through a classically forbidden locally periodic rectangular potential in space fractional quantum mechanics (SFQM). We obtain the close form expression of tunneling time from such a potential by stationary phase method. We show that tunneling time depends upon the width $b$ of the single barrier and separation $L$ between the barriers in the limit $b \to \infty$ and therefore generalized Hartman effect doesn't exist in SFQM. We observe that in SFQM, the tunneling time for large $b$ in the case of locally periodic potential is smaller than…
We theoretically study the tunneling time by investigating a wave packet of Bose-condensed atoms passing through a square barrier. We find that the tunneling time exhibits different scaling laws in different energy regimes. For negative incident energy of the wave packet, counterintuitively, the tunneling time decreases very rapidly with decreasing incident velocity. In contrast, for positive incident energy smaller than the barrier height, the tunneling time increases slowly and then reaches a maximum, which is in agreement with the Larmor clock experiments. The effect of the barrier width re…
The celebrated Hartman effect, according to which, the tunneling time through a opaque barrier is independent of the width of the barrier for a sufficiently thick barrier, is not well understood theoretically and experimentally till today. In this work we attempt to through some light to understand the mystery behind this paradoxical result of tunneling .For this purpose we calculate the tunneling time from a layered non-Hermitian system to examine the effect of $PT$-symmetry over tunneling time. We explicitly find that for system respecting $PT$-symmetry, the tunneling time saturates with the…
Time dependence for barrier penetration is considered in the phase space. An asymptotic phase-space propagator for nonrelativistic scattering on a one - dimensional barrier is constructed. The propagator has a form universal for various initial state preparations and local potential barriers. It is manifestly causal and includes time-lag effects and quantum spreading. Specific features of quantum dynamics which disappear in the standard semi-classical approximation are revealed. The propagator may be applied to calculation of the final momentum and coordinate distributions, for particles trans…
Numerical simulations of quantum clock for measuring tunneling times
本文数值模拟 Larmor 钟与旋转自旋场两种量子钟方法，发现高势垒下隧穿时间表观缩短，并将其归因于势垒末端的滤波效应。
Tunnelling is one of the most paradigmatic and evocative phenomena of quantum physics, underlying processes such as photosynthesis and nuclear fusion, as well as devices ranging from SQUID magnetometers to superconducting qubits for quantum computers. The question of how long a particle takes to tunnel, however, has remained controversial since the first attempts to calculate it, which relied on the group delay. It is now well understood that this delay (the arrival time of the transmitted wave packet peak at the far side of the barrier) can be smaller than the barrier thickness divided by the…
By directly integrating the Schroedinger starting in the transmission region and working backwards through the barrier, the tunneling probability can be determined for arbitrary potential barriers. The method employs techniques familiar to undergraduates and is used here to study resonant tunneling.
The assisted tunneling of a wave packet between square one dimensional barriers is treated analytically. The tunneling rate is calculated exactly for a potential mimicking a constant electric field with arbitrary time dependence. The pole spectrum of the barriers determines the decay time. The tunneling probability is enhanced by the perturbation. The results are exemplified for a simplified model of nuclear $\ds α$ decay.
A model for dealing with energy and momentum exchanges between ballistic electrons in a vacuum barrier in a tunneling probe used as an electromechanical transducer is studied and its physical significance in devices of size comparable to the mean free path of the tunneling electrons is discussed
We propose an analytical study of relativistic tunneling through opaque barriers. We obtain a closed formula for the phase time. This formula is in excellent agreement with the numerical simulations and corrects the standard formula obtained by the stationary phase method. An important result is found when the upper limit of the incoming energy distribution coincides with the upper limit of the tunneling zone. In this case, the phase time is proportional to the barrier width.
We theoretically study the effect of atomic nonlinearity on the tunneling time in the case of an atomic Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) traversing the laser-induced potential barrier. The atomic nonlinearity is controlled to appear only in the region of the barrier by employing the Feshbach resonance technique to tune interatomic interaction in the tunneling process. Numerical simulation shows that the atomic nonlinear effect dramatically changes the tunneling behavior of the BEC matter wave packet, and results in the violation of Hartman effect and the occurrence of negative tunneling time.
We show that the group delay in tunneling is not a traversal time but a lifetime of stored energy or stored probability escaping through both ends of the barrier. Because it is a lifetime associated with both forward (transmitted) and backward (reflected) fluxes, it cannot be used to define a group velocity for forward transit in cases where a wavepacket is mostly reflected. For photonic tunneling barriers the group delay is identical to the dwell time which is also a property of an entire wave function with reflected and transmitted components. Theoretical predictions and experimental reports…
Klein tunneling and conductance for Dirac fermions in ABC-stacked trilayer graphene (ABC-TLG) through symmetric and asymmetric double potential barriers are investigated using the two and six-band continuum model. Numerical results for our system show that the transport is sensitive to the height, the width and the distance between the two barriers. Klein paradox at normal incidence and resonant features at non-normal incidence in the transmission result from resonant electron states in the wells or hole states in the barriers and strongly influence the ballistic conductance of the structures.
We present a class of 2D systems which shows a counterintuitive property that contradicts a semi classical intuition: A 2D quantum particle "prefers" tunneling through a barrier rather than traveling above it. Viewing the one particle 2D system as the system of two 1D particles, it is demonstrated that this effect occurs due to a specific symmetry of the barrier that forces excitations of the interparticle degree of freedom that, in turn, leads to the appearance of an effective potential barrier even though there is no "real" barrier. This phenomenon cannot exist in 1D.
A method of a non-stationary description of tunneling of a particle through the one-dimensional and spherically symmetric rectangular barriers on the basis of analisis of multiple internal reflections of wave packets in relation on the barrier boundaries, named as the Method of multiple internal reflections, is presented at the first time. For the one-dimensional problem the applicability of this method is proved, its specific features are analyzed. For the spherically symmetric problem the amplitudes of the transmitted and reflected wave packets, times of tunneling and reflection in relation …
We study the tunneling of Dirac fermions in graphene through a double barrier potential allowing the carriers to have an effective mass inside the barrier as generated by a lattice miss-match with the boron nitride substrate. The consequences of this gap opening on the transmission are investigated. The realization of resonant tunneling conditions is also analyzed.
A semiclassical method of complex trajectories for the calculation of the tunneling exponent in systems with many degrees of freedom is further developed. It is supplemented with an easily implementable technique, which enables one to single out the physically relevant trajectory from the whole set of complex classical trajectories. The method is applied to semiclassical transitions of a bound system through a potential barrier. We find that the properties of physically relevant complex trajectories are qualitatively different in the cases of potential tunneling at low energy and dynamical tun…
We study the tunneling time of Dirac fermions in graphene magnetic barrier through an electrostatic potential and a mass term. This latter generates an energy gap in the spectrum and therefore affects the proprieties of tunneling of the system. For clarification, we first start by deriving the eigenspinors solutions of Dirac equation and second connect them to the incident, reflected and transmitted beam waves. This connection allows us to obtain the corresponding phases shifts and consequently compute the group delay time in transmission and reflection. Our numerical results show that the gro…
Tunneling Dynamics and Time Delay in Electron Transport through Time-Dependent Barriers with Finite-Bandwidth Reservoirs
通过绝热近似推导时间相关势垒的隧穿电流表达式，揭示势垒调制与稳态周期电流时间延迟的关系，并定义本征隧穿时间，发现宽/高势垒下隧穿时间消失，且时间延迟反映隧穿动力学的内禀性质。
We study the transmission probability of Dirac fermions in graphene scattered by a triangular double barrier potential in the presence of an external magnetic field. Our system made of two triangular potential barrier regions separated by a well region characterized by an energy gap. Solving our Dirac-like equation and matching the solutions at the boundaries allowed us to express our transmission and reflection coefficients in terms of transfer matrix. We show in particular that the transmission exhibits oscillation resonances that are manifestations of the Klein tunneling effect. The triangu…
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