In this paper we show how to apply various techniques and theorems (including Pincherle's theorem, an extension of Euler's formula equating infinite series and continued fractions, an extension of the corresponding transformation that equates infinite products and continued fractions, extensions and contractions of continued fractions and the Bauer-Muir transformation) to derive infinite families of in-equivalent polynomial continued fractions in which each continued fraction has the same limit. This allows us, for example, to construct infinite families of polynomial continued fractions for famous constants like $π$ and $e$, $ζ{(k)}$ (for each positive integer $k\geq 2$), various special functions evaluated at integral arguments and various algebraic numbers. We also pose several questions about the nature of the set of real numbers which have a polynomial continued fraction expansion.
In this paper we define "a continued fraction expansion of the exponential integral $E_{1}(x)$ at infinity", which is analogous to the regular continued fraction expansion of real numbers, and prove that this expansion gives the same continued fraction. Moreover, we give concrete representations of rational functions which are obtained by truncating the continued fraction.
We give continued fraction expansions of the generating functions of Bernoulli numbers, Cauchy numbers, Euler numbers, harmonic numbers, and their generalized or related numbers. In particular, we focus on explicit forms of the convergents of these continued fraction expansions. Linear fractional transformations of such continued fractions are also discussed. We show more continued fraction expansion for different numbers and types, in particular, on Cauchy numbers.
We construct a class of quadratic irrationals having continued fractions of period $n\geq2$ with "small" partial quotients for which certain integer multiples have continued fractions of period $1$, $2$ or $4$ with "large" partial quotients. We then show that numbers in the period of the new continued fraction are simple functions of the numbers in the periods of the original continued fraction. We give generalizations of some of the continued fractions and show that polynomials arising from the generalizations are related to Chebyshev and Fibonacci polynomials. We then show that some of these…
We introduced a new continued fraction expansions in our previous paper. For these expansions, we show formulae of probability about incomplete quotients. Furthermore, we prove the existence of invariant measures with respect to the continued fraction transformations associated with expansions.
In this paper we establish properties of independence for the continued fraction expansions of two algebraic numbers. Roughly speaking, if the continued fraction expansions of two irrational algebraic numbers have the same long sub-word, then the two continued fraction expansions have the same tails. If the two expansions have mirror symmetry long sub-words, then both the two algebraic numbers are quadratic. Applying the above results, we prove a theorem analogous to the Roth's theorem about approximation by algebraic numbers.
We introduce here a general framework for studying continued fraction expansions for complex numbers and establish some results on the convergence of the corresponding sequence of convergents. For continued fraction expansions with partial quotients in a discrete subring of $\mathbb C$ an analogue of the classical Lagrange theorem, characterising quadratic surds as numbers with eventually periodic continued fraction expansions, is proved. Monotonicity and exponential growth are established for the absolute values of the denominators of the convergents for a class of continued fraction algorith…
In this paper, we prove that the period of the continued fraction expansion of ${\sqrt {2^{n}+1}}$ tends to infinity when $n$ tends to infinity through odd positive integers.
Many generalizations of continued fractions, where the reciprocal function has been replaced by a more general function, have been studied, and it is often asked whether such generalized expansions can have nice properties. For instance, we might ask that algebraic numbers of a given degree have periodic expansions, just as quadratic irrationals have periodic continued fractions; or we might ask that familiar transcendental constants such as $e$ or $π$ have periodic or terminating expansions. In this paper, we show that there exist such generalized continued function expansions with essentiall…
We study the generalized continued fraction expansions of complex numbers in term of elements from Euclidean subrings, especially Gaussian or Eisenstein integers, in a general framework as pursued in [3] and [1]. We introduce a common approach to studying the continued fraction expansions of zeroes of binary forms, via consideration of the action of the general linear group, and apply it to discuss expansions of quadratic surds on the one hand and of badly approximable numbers on the other hand. Also, we generalize the property of the simple continued fraction expansions that the convergents a…
We prove that the formula giving the exact value of the irrationality exponent of regular continued fractions remains valid for semi-regular continued fractions satisfyiong certain conditions.
The classical continued fraction is generalized for studying the rational approximation problem on multi-formal Laurent series in this paper, the construction is called m-continued fraction. It is proved that the approximants of an m-continued fraction converge to a multi-formal Laurent series, and are best rational approximations to it; conversely for any multi-formal Laurent series an algorithm called m-CF transform is introduced to obtain its m-continued fraction expansions; moreover, strict m-continued fractions, which are m-continued fractions imposed with some additional conditions, and …
We show, for each $q$-continued fraction $G(q)$ in a certain class of continued fractions, that there is an uncountable set of points on the unit circle at which $G(q)$ diverges in the general sense. This class includes the Rogers-Ramanujan continued fraction and the three Ramanujan-Selberg continued fraction. We discuss the implications of our theorems for the general convergence of other $q$-continued fractions, for example the Göllnitz-Gordon continued fraction, on the unit circle.
In this paper, we investigate the monotone property of the continued fractions $G(m,λ)$ as a function of $m$ and $λ$. In particular, we obtain new inequality for the relative continued fractions.
Fundamental to the theory of continued fractions is the fact that every infinite continued fraction with positive integer coefficients converges; however, it is unknown precisely which continued fractions with integer coefficients (not necessarily positive) converge. Here we present a simple test that determines whether an integer continued fraction converges or diverges. In addition, for convergent continued fractions the test specifies whether the limit is rational or irrational. An attractive way to visualise integer continued fractions is to model them as paths on the Farey graph, which is…
In this work we prove a criterion for an algebraic continued fraction to have a proper palindromic symmetry in dimension $4$. As a multidimensional generalization of continued fractions, we consider Klein polyhedra.
We establish a new transcendence criterion of $p$-adic continued fractions which are called Ruban continued fractions. By this result, we give explicit transcendental Ruban continued fractions with bounded $p$-adic absolute value of partial quotients. This is $p$-adic analogy of Baker's result. We also prove that $p$-adic analogy of Lagrange Theorem for Ruban continued fractions is not true.
We study continued logarithms as introduced by Bill Gosper and studied by J. Borwein et. al.. After providing an overview of the type I and type II generalizations of binary continued logarithms introduced by Borwein et. al., we focus on a new generalization to an arbitrary integer base $b$. We show that all of our so-called type III continued logarithms converge and all rational numbers have finite type III continued logarithms. As with simple continued fractions, we show that the continued logarithm terms, for almost every real number, follow a specific distribution. We also generalize Khinc…
The focus of this paper is on formal power series analogs of the golden ratio. We are interested in both their continued fractions expansions as well as their Laurent series expansions. Our approach studies the Hankel matrices that are determined using the coefficients of the Laurent series expansions.
We state and prove three general formulas allowing to transform formal finite sums into formal continued fractions and apply them to generalize certain expansions in continued fractions given by Hone and Varona.
We prove an analog of Lagrange's Theorem for continued fractions on the Heisenberg group: points with an eventually periodic continued fraction expansion are those that satisfy a particular type of quadratic form, and vice-versa.
For $α_0 = \left[a_0, a_1, \ldots\right]$ an infinite continued fraction and $σ$ a linear fractional transformation, we study the continued fraction expansion of $σ(α_0)$ and its convergents. We provide the continued fraction expansion of $σ(α_0)$ for four general families of continued fractions and when $\left|\det σ\right| = 2$. We also find nonlinear recurrence relations among the convergents of $σ(α_0)$ which allow us to highlight relations between convergents of $α_0$ and $σ(α_0)$. Finally, we apply our results to some special and well-studied continued fractions, like Hurwitzian and Taso…
This work is devoted to the proof of the statement about the existence of palindromic continued fractions in an arbitrary dimension. In addition, it is proved the criterion that an algebraic continued fraction has proper cyclic palindromic symmetry in the case $n = 4$. Klein polyhedra are considered as a multidimensional generalization of continued fractions.
In this paper we prove in detail a criterion for an algebraic continued fraction to have a proper palindromic symmetry in dimension $4$. We also present a new proof of the criterion for an algebraic continued fraction to have a proper cyclic palindromic symmetry in dimension $4$. As a multidimensional generalization of continued fractions, we consider Klein polyhedra.
The study of combinatorial properties of mathematical objects is a very important research field and continued fractions have been deeply studied in this sense. However, multidimensional continued fractions, which are a generalization arising from an algorithm due to Jacobi, have been poorly investigated in this sense, up to now. In this paper, we propose a combinatorial interpretation of the convergents of multidimensional continued fractions in terms of counting some particular tilings, generalizing some results that hold for classical continued fractions.
Ramanujan recorded four reciprocity formulas for the Roger-Ramanujan continued fraction. Two reciprocity formulas each are also associated with the Ramanujan--Göllnitz--Gordon continued fraction and a level-13 analog of the Roger-Ramanujan continued fraction. We show that all eight reciprocity formulas are related to a pair of quadratic equations. The solution to the first equation generalizes the golden ratio and is used to set the value of a coefficient in the second equation; and the solution to the second equation gives a pair of values for a continued fraction. We relate the coefficients …
We give the first transcendence results for the Rosen continued fractions. Introduced over half a century ago, these fractions expand real numbers in terms of certain algebraic numbers.
We generalise remarks of Euler and of Perron by explaining how to detail all quadratic irrational integers for which the symmetric part of the period of their continued fraction expansion commences with prescribed partial quotients. The function field case is particularly striking.
In this paper we present a family of continued fraction expansions for $e^n$, with $n\ge 1$, with a simple expression having partial denominators given by arithmetic progressions. We give an estimate for the convergence speed showing that the convergence is faster than the corresponding regular continued fractions. Moreover, we prove that the continued fractions for $e^n$ given in this paper are special cases of continued fraction expansions, different from the standard ones, of the confluent hypergeometric function, or equivalently, of the incomplete gamma function. In addition, using the sam…
Hurwitz (1887) defined a continued fraction algorithm for complex numbers which is better behaved in many respects than a more "natural" extension of the classical continued fraction algorithm to the complex plane would be. Although the Hurwitz complex continued fraction algorithm is not "reducible" to another complex continued fraction algorithm, over the reals the story is different. In this note we make clear the relation between the restriction of Hurwitz's algorithm to the real numbers and the classical continued fraction algorithm. As an application we reprove the main result of Choudhur…
This paper is devoted to a detailed exposition of geometry of continued fractions. We pay particular interest to the case of quadratic irrationalities and use the technique described to prove a criterion for the continued fraction of a quadratic surd to have a symmetric period.
In 1985, Robbins observed by computer the continued fraction expansion of certain algebraic power series over a finite field. Incidentally, he came across a particular equation of degree 4 in characteristic p=13. This equation has an analogue for all primes p>=5. There are two patterns for the continued fraction of the solution of this equation, according to the residue of p modulo 3. We describe this pattern in the first case, considering especially p=7 and p=13. in the second case we only give indications.
We examine various properties of the continued fraction expansions of matrix eigenvector slopes of matrices from the SL(2, Z) group. We calculate the average period length, maximum period length, average period sum, maximum period sum and the distributions of 1s 2s and 3s in the periods versus the radius of the Ball within which the matrices are located. We also prove that the periods of continued fraction expansions from the real irrational roots of x2 + px + q = 0 are always palindromes.
Multidimensional continued fractions generalize classical continued fractions with the aim of providing periodic representations of algebraic irrationalities by means of integer sequences. However, there does not exist any algorithm that provides a periodic multidimensional continued fraction when algebraic irrationalities are given as inputs. In this paper, we provide a characterization for periodicity of Jacobi--Perron algorithm by means of linear recurrence sequences. In particular, we prove that partial quotients of a multidimensional continued fraction are periodic if and only if numerato…
We present a general introduction to continued fractions, with special consideration to the function fields case. These notes were prepared for a summer class given this year in Beijing at Beihang university.
We show how to obtain infinitely many continued fractions for certain Z-linear combinations of zeta and L values. The methods are completely elementary.
We give a concise introduction to the theory of continuants and show how Perron used them in his proof of Tietze theorem on the convergence of infinite semi-regular continued fractions, as well as for the study of the convergence of purely periodic continued fractions.
Continued fractions have been introduced in the field of $p$--adic numbers $\mathbb{Q}_p$ by several authors. However, a standard definition is still missing since all the proposed algorithms are not able to replicate all the properties of continued fractions in $\mathbb{R}$. In particular, an analogue of the Lagrange's Theorem is not yet proved for any attempt of generalizing continued fractions in $\mathbb{Q}_p$. Thus, it is worth to study the definition of new algorithms for $p$--adic continued fractions. The main condition that a new method needs to fulfill is the convergence in $\mathbb Q…
We will provide a family of continued fractions for which there is no correspondence between dynamic and approximation pairs, leading to an anomaly in their corresponding Spaces of Jager Pairs.
In this paper we define a new type of continued fraction expansion for a real number $x \in I_m:=[0,m-1], m\in N_+, m\geq 2$: \[x = \frac{m^{-b_1(x)}}{\displaystyle 1+\frac{m^{-b_2(x)}}{1+\ddots}}:=[b_1(x), b_2(x), ...]_m. \] Then, we derive the basic properties of this continued fraction expansion, following the same steps as in the case of the regular continued fraction expansion. The main purpose of the paper is to prove the convergence of this type of expansion, i.e. we must show that \[x= \lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}[b_1(x), b_2(x), ..., b_n(x)]_m. \]
This note presents an especially short and direct variant of Hermite's proof of the simple continued fraction expansion e = [2,1,2,1,1,4,1,1,6,...] and explains some of the motivation behind it.
In a previous paper, we showed the existence of an uncountable set of points on the unit circle at which the Rogers-Ramanujan continued fraction does not converge to a finite value. In this present paper, we generalise this result to a wider class of $q$-continued fractions, a class which includes the Rogers-Ramanujan continued fraction and the three Ramanujan-Selberg continued fractions. We show, for each $q$-continued fraction, $G(q)$, in this class, that there is an uncountable set of points, $Y_{G}$, on the unit circle such that if $y \in Y_{G}$ then $G(y)$ does not converge to a finite va…
If the odd and even parts of a continued fraction converge to different values, the continued fraction may or may not converge in the general sense. We prove a theorem which settles the question of general convergence for a wide class of such continued fractions. We apply this theorem to two general classes of $q$ continued fraction to show, that if $G(q)$ is one of these continued fractions and $|q|>1$, then either $G(q)$ converges or does not converge in the general sense. We also show that if the odd and even parts of the continued fraction $K_{n=1}^{\infty}a_{n}/1$ converge to different va…
Legendre found that the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt N$ having odd period leads directly to an explicit representation of $N$ as the sum of two squares. Similarly, it is shown here that the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt N$ having even period directly produces a factor of a composite $N$. Shanks' infrastructural method is then revisited, and some consequences of its application to factorization by means of the continued fraction expansion of $\sqrt N$ are derived.
In this article, we will discover some new generalized identity regarding continued fractions. We will connect the results to Fibonacci numbers and Lucas numbers. For all the proof, we will use induction.
We give a construction of a real number that is normal to all integer bases and continued fraction normal. The computation of the first n digits of its continued fraction expansion performs in the order of n^4 mathematical operations. The construction works by defining successive refinements of appropriate subintervals to achieve, in the limit, simple normality to all integer bases and continued fraction normality. The main diffculty is to control the length of these subintervals. To achieve this we adapt and combine known metric theorems on continued fractions and on expansions in integers ba…
A two-dimensional Gauss-Kuzmin theorem for $N$-continued fraction expansions is shown. More exactly, we obtain a Gauss-Kuzmin theorem related to the natural extension of the measure-dynamical system corresponding to these expansions. Then, using characteristic properties of the transition operator associated with the random system with complete connections underlying $N$-continued fractions on the Banach space of complex-valued functions of bounded variation we derive explicit lower and upper bounds for the convergence rate of the distribution function to its limit.
Recently Raayoni et al. announced various conjectures on continued fractions of fundamental constants automatically generated with machine learning techniques. In this paper we prove some of their stated conjectures for Euler number $e$ and show the equivalence of some of the listed conjectures. Moreover, we propose a simple method that can be used to generate other continued fractions using their series representations.
We provide several results on the diophantine properties of continued fractions on the Heisenberg group, many of which are analogous to classical results for real continued fractions. In particular, we show an analog of Khinchin's theorem and that convergents are also best approximants up to a constant factor of the denominator.
Given an odd prime number p, we describe a continued fraction in the field F(p) of power series in 1/T with coefficients in the finite field F_p, where T is a formal indeterminate. This continued fraction satisfies an algebraic equation of a particular type, with coefficients in F_p[T] which are explicitely given. We observe the close connection with other algebraic continued fractions studied thirty years ago by Mills and Robbins.
