We investigate the correlation between rest-frame UV flux variability of broad absorption line (BAL) quasars and their variability in BAL equivalent widths (EWs) in a various timescale from $<10$~days to a few years in the quasar rest-frame. We use the data sets of BAL EWs taken by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Reverberation Mapping (SDSS-RM) project and photometric data taken by the intermediate Palomar Transient Factory (iPTF) in $g$ and $R$-bands and the Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS) in $grizy$ bands. Our results are summarized as below; (1) the distributions of flux variability versus BAL variability show weak, moderate, or a strong positive correlation, (2) there is no significant difference in flux variability amplitudes between BAL quasar with significant short timescale EW variability (called class S1) and without (class S2), (3) in all time scales considered in this paper, the class S1 quasars show systematically larger BAL variability amplitudes than those of the class S2 quasars, and (4) there are possible correlations between BAL variability and physical parameters of the quasars such as black hole masses (moderate positive), Eddington ratios, and accretion disk temperature (strong negative) in the class S2 quasars. These results indicate that the BAL variability requires changing in the ionizing continuum and an ancillary mechanism such as variability in X-ray shielding gas located at the innermost region of an accretion disk.
We present the ensemble variability analysis results of quasars using the Dark Energy Camera Legacy Survey (DECaLS) and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) quasar catalogs. Our dataset includes 119,305 quasars with redshifts up to 4.89. Combining the two datasets provides a 15-year baseline and permits analysis of the long timescale variability. Adopting a power-law form for the variability structure function, $V=A(t/1yr)^γ$, we use the multi-dimensional parametric fitting to explore the relationships between the quasar variability amplitude and a wide variety of quasar properties, including r…
We investigate the connection between the intrinsic C IV absorption line variability and the continuum flux changes of broad absorption line (BAL) quasars using a sample of 78 sources in the Stripe 82 region. The absorption trough variability parameters are measured using the archival multi-epoch spectroscopic data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), and the continuum flux variability parameters are estimated from the photometric light curves obtained by the SDSS and the Catalina Real-Time Survey (CRTS) surveys. We find evidence for weak correlations (ρ~ 0.3) between the intrinsic C IV a…
We present the results of a systematic search for quasars in the Catalina Real-time Transient Survey exhibiting both strong photometric and spectroscopic variability over a decadal baseline. We identify 73 sources with specific patterns of optical and mid-IR photometric behavior and a defined spectroscopic change. These "Changing-State" quasars (CSQs) form a higher luminosity sample to complement existing sets of "Changing-Look" AGN and quasars in the literature. The CSQs (by selection) exhibit larger photometric variability than the CLQs. The spectroscopic variability is marginally stronger i…
There is a large degree of variety in the optical variability of quasars and it is unclear whether this is all attributable to a single (set of) physical mechanism(s). We present the results of a systematic search for major flares in AGN in the Catalina Real-time Transient Survey as part of a broader study into extreme quasar variability. Such flares are defined in a quantitative manner as being atop of the normal, stochastic variability of quasars. We have identified 51 events from over 900,000 known quasars and high probability quasar candidates, typically lasting 900 days and with a median …
When a flux-limited quasar sample is observed at later times, there will be more dimmed quasars than brightened ones, due to a selection bias induced at the time of sample selection. Quasars are continuously varying and there are more fainter quasars than brighter ones. At the time of selection, even symmetrical variability will result in more quasars with their instantaneous fluxes scattered above the flux limit than those scattered below, leading to an asymmetry in flux changes over time. The same bias would lead to an asymmetry in the ensemble structure function (SF) of the sample such that…
We explore the variability of quasars in the MgII and Hbeta broad emission lines and UV/optical continuum emission using the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Reverberation Mapping project (SDSS-RM). This is the largest spectroscopic study of quasar variability to date: our study includes 29 spectroscopic epochs from SDSS-RM over $6$ months, containing 357 quasars with MgII and 41 quasars with Hbeta . On longer timescales, the study is also supplemented with two-epoch data from SDSS-I/II. The SDSS-I/II data include an additional $2854$ quasars with MgII and 572 quasars with Hbeta. The MgII emission lin…
We conduct a pilot investigation to determine the optimal combination of color and variability information to identify quasars in current and future multi-epoch optical surveys. We use a Bayesian quasar selection algorithm (Richards et al. 2004) to identify 35,820 type 1 quasar candidates in a 239 square degree field of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Stripe 82, using a combination of optical photometry and variability. Color analysis is performed on 5-band single- and multi-epoch SDSS optical photometry to a depth of r ~22.4. From these data, variability parameters are calculated by fitti…
We present an improved photometric error analysis for the 7,100 CRTS (Catalina Real-Time Transient Survey) optical light curves for quasars from the SDSS (Sloan Digital Sky Survey) Stripe 82 catalogue. The SDSS imaging survey has provided a time-resolved photometric data set which greatly improved our understanding of the quasar optical continuum variability: Data for monthly and longer time-scales are consistent with a damped random walk (DRW). Recently, newer data obtained by CRTS provided puzzling evidence for enhanced variability, compared to SDSS results, on monthly time-scales. Quantitat…
While narrow absorption lines (NALs) are relatively stable, broad absorption lines (BALs) and mini-BAL systems usually show violent time variability within a few years via a mechanism that is not yet understood. In this study, we examine variable ionization state (VIS) scenario as a plausible mechanism, as previously suspected. Over three years, we performed photometric monitoring observations of four mini-BAL and five NAL quasars at $z_{\rm em}$ $\sim$ 2.0 - 3.1 using the 105 cm Kiso Schmidt Telescope in $u$, $g$, and $i$-bands. We also performed spectroscopic monitoring observation of one of…
We systematically investigate short-timescale ($<$10-day rest-frame) CIV broad absorption-line (BAL) variability to constrain quasar-wind properties and provide insights into BAL-variability mechanisms in quasars. We employ data taken by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Reverberation Mapping (SDSS-RM) project, as the rapid cadence of these observations provides a novel opportunity to probe BAL variability on shorter rest-frame timescales than have previously been explored. In a sample of 27 quasars with a median of 58 spectral epochs per quasar, we have identified 15 quasars ($55^{+18}_{-14}$%), 1…
In this work we train three decision-tree based ensemble machine learning algorithms (Random Forest Classifier, Adaptive Boosting and Gradient Boosting Decision Tree respectively) to study quasar selection in the variable source catalog in SDSS Stripe 82. We build training and test samples (both containing 1:1 of quasars and stars) using the spectroscopic confirmed sources in SDSS DR14 (including 8330 quasars and 3966 stars). We find that, trained with variation parameters alone, all three models can select quasars with similarly and remarkably high precision and completeness ($\sim$ 98.5% and…
We constrain the average episodic quasar lifetime (as in steady-state accretion) using two statistics of quasars that are recently turned off (i.e., dimmed by a large factor): 1) the fraction of turned-off quasars in a statistical sample photometrically observed over an extended period (e.g., $Δt=20$ yrs); 2) the fraction of massive galaxies that show 'orphan' broad MgII emission, argued to be short-lived echoes of recently turned-off quasars. The two statistics constrain the average episodic quasar lifetime to be hundreds to thousands of years. Much longer (or shorter) episodic lifetimes are …
We investigated the rest-frame $\approx$0.1-5 year X-ray variability properties of an unbiased and uniformly selected sample of 24 BAL and 35 mini-BAL quasars, making it the largest representative sample used to investigate such variability. We find that the distributions of X-ray variability amplitudes of these quasar populations are statistically similar to that of non-BAL, radio-quiet (typical) quasars.
Using archival observations recorded over a 5+ year timeframe with the NASA Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) satellite, we present a study of the ultraviolet (UV) variability of 4360 quasars of redshifts up to z=2.5 that have optical counterparts in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey DR5 spectroscopic catalog. The observed changes in both the far UV (FUV: 1350-1785A) and near UV (NUV: 1770-2830A) AB magnitudes as a function of time may help differentiate between models of the emission mechanisms thought to operate in these active galaxies. A list of NUV and FUV variable quasars was derived from the…
We present the second Multi-Epoch X-ray Serendipitous AGN Sample (MEXSAS2), extracted from the 6th release of the XMM Serendipitous Source Catalogue (XMMSSC-DR6), cross-matched with Sloan Digital Sky Survey quasar catalogues DR7Q and DR12Q. Our sample also includes the available measurements for masses, bolometric luminosities, and Eddington ratios. Analyses of the ensemble structure function and spectral variability are presented, together with their dependences on such parameters. We confirm a decrease of the structure function with the X-ray luminosity, and find a weak dependence on the bla…
We report here the first results from a 15-yr long variability monitoring of the z=2.0 quasar QSO B1312+7837. It shows luminosity changes with a period P~6.13 yr (P~2.04 yr at rest frame) and an amplitude of ~0.2mag, superimposed on a gradual dimming at a rate of ~0.55mag per 100 yrs. Two false periods associated with power peaks in the data windowing function were discarded. The measured period is confirmed with a bootstrapping Monte-Carlo simulation. A damped random walk model yields a better fit to the data than a sine-function model, but at the cost of employing some high frequency variati…
We have used optical V and R band observations from the Massive Compact Halo Object (MACHO) project on a sample of 59 quasars behind the Magellanic clouds to study their long term optical flux and colour variations. These quasars lying in the redshift range of 0.2 < z < 2.8 and having apparent V band magnitudes between 16.6 and 20.1 mag have observations ranging from 49 to 1353 epochs spanning over 7.5 years with frequency of sampling between 2 to 10 days. All the quasars show variability during the observing period. The normalized excess variance (Fvar) in V and R bands are in the range 0.2% …
Quasars are variable on timescales from days to years in UV/optical, and generally appear bluer while they brighten. The physics behind the variations in fluxes and colors remains unclear. Using SDSS g and r band photometric monitoring data of quasars in Stripe 82, we find that although the flux variation amplitude increases with timescale, the color variability exhibits opposite behavior. The color variability of quasars is prominent at timescales as short as ~ 10 days, but gradually reduces toward timescales up to years. In other words, the variable emission at shorter timescales is bluer th…
Quasar outflows have long been recognized as potential contributors to the co-evolution between supermassive black holes (SMBHs) and their host galaxies. The role of outflows in AGN feedback processes can be better understood by placing observational constraints on wind locations and kinetic energies. We utilize broad absorption line (BAL) variability to investigate the properties of a sample of 71 BAL quasars with P$\thinspace$V broad absorption. The presence of P$\thinspace$V BALs indicates that other BALs like C$\thinspace$IV are saturated, such that variability in those lines favours cloud…
CRTS J084133.15+200525.8 is an optically bright quasar at z=2.345 that has shown extreme spectral variability over the past decade. Photometrically, the source had a visual magnitude of V~17.3 between 2002 and 2008. Then, over the following five years, the source slowly brightened by approximately one magnitude, to V~16.2. Only ~1 in 10,000 quasars show such extreme variability, as quantified by the extreme parameters derived for this quasar assuming a damped random walk model. A combination of archival and newly acquired spectra reveal the source to be an iron low-ionization broad absorption …
The broad Mg II line in quasars has distinct variability properties compared with broad Balmer lines: it is less variable, and usually does not display a "breathing" mode, the increase in the average cloud distance when luminosity increases. We demonstrate that these variability properties of Mg II can be reasonably well explained by simple Locally Optimally Emitting Cloud (LOC) photoionization models, confirming earlier photoionization results. In the fiducial LOC model, the Mg II-emitting gas is on average more distant from the ionizing source than the H$α$/H$β$ gas, and responds with a lowe…
We present absorption variability results for 134 bona fide \mgii\ broad absorption line (BAL) quasars at 0.46~$\lesssim z \lesssim$~2.3 covering days to $\sim$ 10 yr in the rest frame. We use multiple-epoch spectra from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, which has delivered the largest such BAL-variability sample ever studied. \mgii-BAL identifications and related measurements are compiled and presented in a catalog. We find a remarkable time-dependent asymmetry in EW variation from the sample, such that weakening troughs outnumber strengthening troughs, the first report of such a phenomenon in BA…
Variations of the X-ray spectral slope have been found in many Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) at moderate luminosities and redshifts, typically showing a "softer when brighter" behaviour. However, similar studies are not usually performed for high-luminosity AGNs. We present an analysis of the spectral variability based on a large sample of quasars in wide intervals of luminosity and redshift, measured at several different epochs, extracted from the fifth release of the XMM Newton Serendipitous Source Catalogue. Our analysis confirms a "softer when brighter" trend also for our sample, extending …
We perform a systematic search for high-redshift ($z >$ 1.5) extreme variability quasars (EVQs) using repeat spectra from the Sixteenth Data Release of Sloan Digital Sky Survey, which provides a baseline spanning up to $\sim$18 yrs in the observed frame. We compile a sample of 348 EVQs with a maximum continuum variability at rest frame 1450 Angstrom of more than 100% (i.e., $δ$V $\equiv$ (Max$-$Min)/Mean $>$1). The EVQs show a range of emission line variability, including 23 where at least one line in our redshift range disappears below detectability, which can then be seen as analogous to low…
Supermassive black hole binaries (SMBHBs) are an inevitable consequence of galaxy mergers. At subparsec separations, they are practically impossible to resolve, and the most promising technique is to search for quasars with periodic variability. However, searches for quasar periodicity in time-domain data are challenging due to the stochastic variability of quasars. In this paper, we used Bayesian methods to disentangle periodic SMBHB signals from intrinsic damped random walk (DRW) variability in active galactic nuclei light curves. We simulated a wide variety of realistic DRW and DRW+sine lig…
We demonstrate that VPMS J170850.95+433223.7 is a weak line quasar (WLQ) which is remarkable in several respects. It was already classified as a probable quasar two decades ago, but with considerable uncertainty. The non-significant proper motion and parallax from the Gaia early data release 3 have solidified this assumption. Based on previously unpublished spectra, we show that VPMS J170850.95+433223.7 is a WLQ at z = 2.345 with immeasurably faint broad emission lines in the rest-frame ultraviolet. A preliminary estimate suggests that it hosts a supermassive black hole of ~10^9 M_sun accretin…
The physical mechanisms of the quasar ultraviolet (UV)-optical variability are not well understood despite the long history of observations. Recently, Dexter & Agol presented a model of quasar UV-optical variability, which assumes large local temperature fluctuations in the quasar accretion discs. This inhomogeneous accretion disc model is claimed to describe not only the single-band variability amplitude, but also microlensing size constraints and the quasar composite spectral shape. In this work, we examine the validity of the inhomogeneous accretion disc model in the light of quasar UV-opti…
Active galactic nuclei (AGN) that show strong rest-frame optical/UV variability in their blue continuum and broad line emission are classified as "changing-look" AGN, or at higher luminosities changing look quasars (CLQs). These surprisingly large and sometimes rapid transitions challenge accepted models of quasar physics and duty cycles, offer several new avenues for study of quasar host galaxies, and open a wider interpretation of the cause of differences between broad and narrow line AGN. To better characterize extreme quasar variability, we present follow-up spectroscopy as part of a compr…
Quasar microlensing analyses implicitly generate a model of the variability of the source quasar. The implied source variability may be unrealistic yet its likelihood is generally not evaluated. We used the damped random walk (DRW) model for quasar variability to evaluate the likelihood of the source variability and applied the revised algorithm to a microlensing analysis of the lensed quasar RX J1131-1231. We compared the estimates of the source quasar disk and average lens galaxy stellar mass with and without applying the DRW likelihoods for the source variability model and found no signific…
Extremely variable quasars (EVQs) are a population of sources showing large optical photometric variability revealed by time-domain surveys. The physical origin of such extreme variability is yet unclear. In this first paper of a series, we construct the largest-ever sample of 14,012 EVQs using photometric data spanning over $>$ 15 years from SDSS and Pan-STARRS1. We divide them into five sub-samples according to the relative brightness of an EVQ during SDSS spectroscopic observation compared to the mean brightness from photometric observations. Corresponding control samples of normal quasars …
We explore the evolution of the time variability (in the optical $g$-band and on timescales of weeks to years) of SDSS Stripe 82 quasars along the quasar main sequence. A parent sample of $1004$ quasars within $0.5\leq z \leq 0.89$ are used for our statistical studies, we then make subsamples from our parent sample: a subsample of $246$ quasars with similar luminosities, and a subsample of $399$ quasars with similar Rfe (i.e., the ratio of the equivalent width of FeII within $4435$--$4685\ \mathrmÅ$ to that of \Hbeta). We find the variability amplitude decreases with luminosity ($L_{\mathrm{bo…
The time domain is the emerging forefront of astronomical research with new facilities and instruments providing unprecedented amounts of data on the temporal behavior of astrophysical populations. Dealing with the size and complexity of this requires new techniques and methodologies. Quasars are an ideal work set for developing and applying these: they vary in a detectable but not easily quantifiable manner whose physical origins are poorly understood. In this paper, we will review how quasars are identified by their variability and how these techniques can be improved, what physical insights…
We study the optical light curves - primarily probing the variable emission from the accretion disk - of ~ 900 extreme variability quasars (EVQs, with maximum flux variations more than 1 mag) over an observed-frame baseline of ~ 16 years using public data from the SDSS Stripe 82, PanSTARRS-1 and the Dark Energy Survey. We classify the multi-year long-term light curves of EVQs into three categories roughly in the order of decreasing smoothness: monotonic decreasing or increasing (3.7%), single broad peak and dip (56.8%), and more complex patterns (39.5%). The rareness of monotonic cases suggest…
The Decadal IRAC Bootes Survey is a mid-IR variability survey of the ~9 sq. deg. of the NDWFS Bootes Field and extends the time baseline of its predecessor, the Spitzer Deep, Wide-Field Survey (SDWFS), from 4 to 10 years. The Spitzer Space Telescope visited the field five times between 2004 and 2014 at 3.6 and 4.5 microns. We provide the difference image analysis photometry for a half a million mostly extragalactic sources. In mid-IR color-color plane, sources with quasar colors constitute the largest variability class (75%), 16% of the variable objects have stellar colors and the remaining 9%…
Quasars have long been known as intrinsically variable sources, but the physical mechanism underlying the temporal optical/UV variability is still not well understood. We propose a novel nonparametric method for modeling and forecasting the optical variability of quasars utilizing an autoencoder neural network to gain insight into the underlying processes. The autoencoder is trained with ~15,000 decade-long quasar light curves obtained by the Catalina Real-time Transient Survey selected with negligible flux contamination from the host galaxy. The autoencoder's performance in forecasting the te…
A damped random walk is a stochastic process, defined by an exponential covariance matrix that behaves as a random walk for short time scales and asymptotically achieves a finite variability amplitude at long time scales. Over the last few years, it has been demonstrated, mostly but not exclusively using SDSS data, that a damped random walk model provides a satisfactory statistical description of observed quasar variability in the optical wavelength range, for rest-frame timescales from 5 days to 2000 days. The best-fit characteristic timescale and asymptotic variability amplitude scale with t…
We study the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) variability (rest frame wavelengths 500 - 920 $Å$) of high luminosity quasars using HST (low to intermediate redshift sample) and SDSS (high redshift sample) archives. The combined HST and SDSS data indicates a much more pronounced variability when the sampling time between observations in the quasar rest frame is $> 2\times 10^{7}$ sec compared to $< 1.5\times 10^{7}$ sec. Based on an excess variance analysis, for time intervals $< 2\times 10^{7}$ sec in the quasar rest frame, $10\%$ of the quasars (4/40) show evidence of EUV variability. Similarly, for …
Discovery of Quasar Variability and Early Accretion Disk Signatures at Cosmic Dawn
Massachusetts Institute of Technology（麻省理工学院）；Columbia University（哥伦比亚大学）；Flatiron Institute（平顿研究所）；University of Portsmouth（朴茨茅斯大学）；University of Arizona（亚利桑那大学）；University of Michigan（密歇根大学）
We analyze 1598 serendipitous Chandra X-ray observations of 462 radio-quiet quasars to constrain the frequency of extreme amplitude X-ray variability that is intrinsic to the quasar corona and innermost accretion flow. The quasars in this investigation are all spectroscopically confirmed, optically bright ($m_i \leq$ 20.2), and contain no identifiable broad absorption lines in their optical/ultraviolet spectra. This sample includes quasars spanning $z \approx$ 0.1 - 4 and probes X-ray variability on timescales of up to $\approx$ 12 rest-frame years. Variability amplitudes are computed between …
We use the multi-epoch spectra of 362 quasars from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Reverberation Mapping project to investigate the dependence of the blueshift of CIV relative to MgII on quasar properties. We confirm that high-blueshift sources tend to have low CIV equivalent widths (EWs), and that the low-EW sources span a range of blueshift. Other high-ionization lines, such as HeII, also show similar blueshift properties. The ratio of the line width (measured as both the full-width at half maximum and the velocity dispersion) of CIV to that of MgII increases with blueshift. Quasar variability …
The relation between X-ray and UV/optical variability in AGNs has been explored in many individual sources, however a large sample study is yet absent. Through matching the XMM-Newton serendipitous X-ray and UV source catalogs with SDSS quasars, we build a sample of 802 epoch-pairs of 525 quasars showing clear variability in logFx-logFuv space. After correcting for the effect of photometric noise, we find 35.6\pm2.1% of the epoch-pairs show asynchronous variability between X-ray and UV (brightening in one band but dimming in the other). This indicates only in 28.8\pm4.2% of the epoch-pairs the…
The variability of quasars across multiple wavelengths is a useful probe of physical conditions in active galactic nuclei. In particular, variable accretion rates, instabilities, and reverberation effects in the accretion disk of a supermassive black hole (SMBH) are expected to produce correlated flux variations in UV and optical bands. Recent work has further argued that binary quasars should exhibit strongly correlated UV and optical periodicities. Strong UV-optical correlations have indeed been established in small samples of up to approximately 30 quasars with well-sampled light curves, an…
The rest-frame UV/optical variability of the quasars in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Stripe 82 is used to test the Corona-Heated Accretion-disk Reprocessing (CHAR) model of Sun et al. 2020. We adopt our CHAR model and the observed black-hole masses ($M_{\mathrm{BH}}$) and luminosities ($L$) to generate mock light curves that share the same measurement noise and sampling as the real observations. Without any fine-tuning, our CHAR model can satisfactorily reproduce the observed ensemble structure functions for different $M_{\mathrm{BH}}$, $L$, and rest-frame wavelengths. Our analyses reve…
We characterize the optical variability properties of eight lobe-dominated radio quasars (QSOs): B2 0709$+$37, FBQS J095206.3$+$235245, PG 1004$+$130, [HB89] 1156$+$631, [HB89] 1425$+$267, [HB89] 1503$+$691, [HB89] 1721$+$343, 4C $+$74.26, systematically monitored for a duration of 13 years since 2009. The quasars are radio-loud objects with extended radio lobes that indicate their orientation close to the sky plane. Five of the eight QSOs are classified as giant radio quasars. All quasars showed variability during our monitoring, with magnitude variations between 0.3 and 1 mag for the least v…
We present the variability study of broad absorption lines (BALs) in a uniformly radio-selected sample of 28 BAL quasars using the archival data from the FIRST Bright Quasar Survey (FBQS) and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), as well as those obtained by ourselves, covering time scales $\sim 1-10$ years in the quasar's rest-frame. To our surprise, 5 quasars showing strong variations are all belong to a special subclass of overlapping iron low ionization BAL (OFeLoBAL) quasars, however, other 4 non-overlapping FeLoBALs (non-OFeLoBALs) are invariable except one case with weak optical depth ch…
We have monitored 12 intrinsic narrow absorption lines (NALs) in five quasars and seven mini-broad absorption lines (mini-BALs) in six quasars for a period of 4-12 years (1-3.5 years in the quasar rest-frame). We present the observational data and the conclusions that follow immediately from them, as a prelude to a more detailed analysis. We found clear variability in the equivalent widths (EWs) of the mini-BAL systems but no easily discernible changes in their profiles. We did not detect any variability in the NAL systems nor in narrow components that are often located at the center of mini-B…
In a sample of 60 quasars selected from Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) with at least six-epoch spectroscopy, we investigate the variability of emission lines and continuum luminosity at various aspects. A strong anti-correlation between the variability and continuum luminosity at 2500 Å is found for the sample, which is consistent with previous works. In individual sources, we find that half of the sample objects have a trend of being bluer-when-brighter trend (BWB), while the remaining half exhibit redder-when-brighter trend (RWB). Although the mechanism for RWB is unclear, the effects of ho…
