High-granularity calorimeters utilizing silicon pad sensors as main active material are being designed for the CMS endcap calorimeter upgrade and have been proposed for the electromagnetic calorimeters at CLIC, ILC and FCC-ee. The silicon sensors in such experiments are foreseen to cover a very large area of O(1000 $\mathrm{m^2}$). They are typically produced from 6- or 8-inch wafers and consist of a few hundred smaller cells, each with an area of O(0.1 to 1.1 $\mathrm{cm^2}$). Currently the CMS endcap calorimeter upgrade is in a prototyping phase with the aim of choosing the final sensor design. Flexible systems are needed for quick sensor characterization as close as possible to operating conditions, for testing different prototypes and for quality control during mass production. The ARRAY system consists of an active switching matrix PCB with 512 input channels and a passive probe card specific for each sensor layout prototype. The probe card makes contact with each individual pad through spring-loaded pins. ARRAY is designed to measure the leakage current and capacitance per-cell for different bias voltages, keeping the entire sensor area under bias. The Hexaboard probe card follows a similar principle: readout electronics foreseen to be used in the final CMS detector are mounted on a PCB that makes contact with the sensor through spring-loaded pins. It is used to perform noise and charge collection efficiency measurements with irradiated sensors without the need for module assembly. We present the design of the ARRAY and Hexaboard systems as well as measurements performed on different CMS prototype silicon sensors. We also compare the results with alternative multi-needle setups.
Radiation Tolerance Characterisation of an Indigenously Developed p-type Silicon Pad Sensor for Forward Calorimetry Applications
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre（变能回旋加速器中心）；Homi Bhabha National Institute（霍米·巴巴国立研究所）；Jadavpur University（贾达普大学）；Bhabha Atomic Research Centre（巴哈原子研究中心）；Institute for Plasma Research（等离子体研究所）
The recent availability of blue sensitive silicon photomultipliers allows the direct readout of blue emitting plastic scintillator tiles without the use of a wavelength shifting fiber. Such directly read out tiles, without light guides, are attractive for the use in highly granular calorimeters that use large numbers of individual cells and in other applications where very compact designs are needed. However, the total signal amplitude and the uniformity of the response can be problematic in such cases. We have developed a scanning setup to investigate the response of scintillator tiles with S…
The CALICE collaboration conducts calorimeter R&D for highly granular calorimeters, mainly for their application in detectors for a future lepton collider at the TeV scale. The activities ranges from generic R&D with small devices up to extensive beam tests with prototypes comprising up to several 100000 calorimeter cells. CALICE has validated the performance of particle flow algorithms with test beam data and delivers the proof of principle that highly granular calorimeters can be built, operated and understood. The successes achieved in the past years allows the step from prototypes to calor…
The DHCAL, the Digital Hadron Calorimeter, is a prototype calorimeter based on Resistive Plate Chambers (RPCs). The design emphasizes the imaging capabilities of the detector in an effort to optimize the calorimeter for the application of Particle Flow Algorithms (PFAs) to the reconstruction of hadronic jet energies in a colliding beam environment. The readout of the chambers is segmented into 1 x 1 cm2 pads, each read out with a 1-bit (single threshold) resolution. The prototype with approximately 500,000 readout channels underwent extensive testing in both the Fermilab and CERN test beams. T…
Glass RPC detectors are an attractive candidate for the active part of a highly granular digital hadron calorimeter (DHCAL) at the ILC. A numerical study, based on the GEANT3 simulation package, of the performance of such a calorimeter is presented in this work. A simplified model for the RPC response, tuned on real data, is implemented in the simulation. The reliability of the simulation is demonstrated by comparison to existing data collected with a large volume calorimeter prototype exposed to a pion beam in an energy range from 2 GeV to 10 GeV. In view of an optimization of the readout pit…
A silicon-based fine granularity calorimeter is a potential technology for the future International Linear Collider ILC, the future circular collider CEPC, and is also the chosen technology for the upgraded CMS experiment of the Large Hadron Collider. Active silicon sensing pads are used as MIP counters and the standard calibration of the calorimeter uses weights based on the average energy loss, $dEdx$. In this work, the limitations of the dEdx calibration method in terms of energy linearity, scale and resolution are explored. In the case of a calorimeter with varying passive layer thickness …
Calorimeters will provide critical measurements at future collider detectors. As the traditional challenge of high dynamic range, high precision, and high readout rates for signal amplitudes is compounded by increasing granularity and precision timing the readout systems will become increasingly complex. This white paper reviews the challenges and opportunities in calorimeter readout at future collider detectors.
To evaluate different technologies for calorimetry at the International Linear Collider, the CALICE collaboration has constructed a highly granular analog hadron calorimeter with small scintillator cells, individually read out by silicon photomultipliers. This device has been extensively tested in particle beams. A digital hadron calorimeter based on RPC readout is currently under construction, with first prototype beam test results already available. The high granularity allows detailed investigations of the substructure of hadronic showers, and can also be exploited for the development of so…
Precision physics at future colliders requires highly granular calorimeters to support the Particle Flow Approach for event reconstruction. This article presents a review of about 10 - 15 years of R\&D, mainly conducted within the CALICE collaboration, for this novel type of detector. The performance of large scale prototypes in beam tests validate the technical concept of particle flow calorimeters. The comparison of test beam data with simulation, of e.g.\ hadronic showers, supports full detector studies and gives deeper insight into the structure of hadronic cascades than was possible previ…
The replacement of the existing endcap calorimeter in the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) detector for the high-luminosity LHC (HL-LHC), scheduled for 2027, will be a high granularity calorimeter. It will provide detailed position, energy, and timing information on electromagnetic and hadronic showers in the immense pileup of the HL-LHC. The High Granularity Calorimeter (HGCAL) will use 120-, 200-, and 300-$μ\textrm{m}$ thick silicon (Si) pad sensors as the main active material and will sustain 1-MeV neutron equivalent fluences up to about $10^{16}~\textrm{n}_\textrm{eq}\textrm{cm}^{-2}$. In order…
The High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) will integrate 10 times more luminosity than the LHC, posing significant challenges for radiation tolerance and event pileup on detectors, especially for forward calorimetry, and hallmarks the issue for future colliders. As part of its HL-LHC upgrade program, the CMS collaboration is designing a High Granularity Calorimeter to replace the existing endcap calorimeters. It features unprecedented transverse and longitudinal segmentation for both electromagnetic (ECAL) and hadronic (HCAL) compartments. This will facilitate particle-flow calorimetry, where the fine …
A sampling calorimeter equipped with gaseous sensor layers with digital readout is near perfect for "Particle Flow Algorithm" approach, since it is homogeneous over large surfaces, robust, cost efficient, easily segmentable to any readout pad dimension and size and almost insensitive to neutrons. The response of a finely segmented digital calorimeter is characterized by track efficiency and multiplicity. Monte Carlo (MC) programs such as GEANT4 simulate with high precision the energy deposited by particles. The sensor and electronic response associated to a pad are calculated in a separate "di…
The existing CMS endcap calorimeters will be replaced with a High Granularity Calorimeter (HGCAL) for operation at the High Luminosity (HL) LHC. Radiation hardness and excellent physics performance will be achieved by utilising silicon pad sensors and SiPM-on-scintillator tiles with high longitudinal and transverse segmentation. One of the major challenges of the HL-LHC will be the high pileup environment, with interaction vertices spread not only in position, but also in time. In order to efficiently reject particles originating from pileup, precision timing information of the order of 30 ps …
As a future Higgs or Z factory, construction of the circular electron positron collider(CEPC) has been proposed to precisely measure Higgs bosons. A particle flow-oriented electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL) and a hadronic calorimeter comprise a baseline design for the CEPC calorimetry system. The scintillator-tungsten ECAL (Sc-ECAL) prototype is being developed within the CEPC calorimetry working group. The Sc-ECAL is a sampling calorimeter consisting of alternating absorber layers and high granularity active layers. Each component of the active layer has been studied and optimized from a vari…
The ALICE experiment at LHC studies the strong interaction sector of the Standard Model with pp, pA and AA collisions. Within the scope of the physics program, measurements of photons, neutral mesons and jets in ALICE are performed by two electromagnetic calorimeters. Precise and high-granularity photon spectrometer (PHOS) composed of lead-tungstate crystals, along with a wide-aperture lead-scintillator sampling calorimeter (EMCal) provide complementary measurements of photon observables in a wide kinematic range. The calorimeter trigger system allows the experiment to utilize efficiently the …
For the high luminosity upgrade of the LHC at CERN, ATLAS is considering the addition of a High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) in front of the end cap and forward calorimeters at |z| = 3.5 m and covering the region 2.4 < |η| < 4 to help reducing the effect of pile-up. The chosen sensors are arrays of 50 μm thin Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGAD). This paper presents results on single LGAD sensors with a surface area of 1.3x1.3 mm2 and arrays with 2x2 pads with a surface area of 2x2 mm^2 or 3x3 mm^2 each and different implant doses of the p+ multiplication layer. They are obtained from dat…
As part of its HL-LHC upgrade program, CMS is developing a High Granularity Calorimeter (HGCAL) to replace the existing endcap calorimeters. The HGCAL will be realised as a sampling calorimeter, including an electromagnetic compartment comprising 28 layers of silicon pad detectors with pad areas of 0.5 - 1.0 cm2 interspersed with absorbers. Prototype modules, based on 6-inch hexagonal silicon pad sensors with 128 channels, have been constructed and include many of the features required for this challenging detector. In 2016, beam tests of sampling configurations made from these modules have be…
The foreseen upgrade of the LHC to its high luminosity phase (HL-LHC), will maximize the physics potential of the facility. The upgrade is expected to increase the instantaneous luminosity by a factor of 5 and deliver an integrated luminosity of 3000 fb-1 after 10 years of operation. As a result of the corresponding increase in radiation and pileup, the electromagnetic calorimetry in the CMS endcaps will sustain maximum integrated doses of 1.5 MGy and neutron fluences above 1e16 neq/cm2, necessitating their replacement for HL-LHC operation. The CMS collaboration has decided to replace the exis…
We propose extending parallel fiber dual readout calorimetry to tiles, more applicable to many future experimental requirements, with superior energy resolution. Monte Carlo (MC) studies indicate that a tile dual calorimeter including an integral Cerenkov-compensated e-m front end and further longitudinal segmentation, not possible with parallel fibers, has equivalent or better resolution. Besides comparison and tuning with dual tile calorimeter data, a MC can be extended to study other dual and then multiple tile sensors including tiles with higher contrast to em-hadron shower fluctuations wi…
In the Energy Frontier we suggest developing high rate (100 MHz) finely segmented forward calorimetry preradiators with time resolution <50 ps which will survive the first 1-2 Lint of incident high radiation doses, protecting forward calorimeters 3<y<6; less than 5 degrees to the beam behind them from radiation damage, with high granularity, high rate capability and 30ps time resolution (4D calorimetry) providing lepton and photon ID and measurement. In the Intensity Frontier beam particle selection, such as tagged neutrino and kaon beams, and lepton violation experiments with muons require ve…
The CALICE collaboration is developing highly granular calorimeters for experiments at a future lepton collider primarily to establish technologies for particle flow event reconstruction. These technologies also find applications elsewhere, such as detector upgrades for the LHC. Meanwhile, the large data sets collected in an extensive series of beam tests have enabled detailed studies of the properties of hadronic showers in calorimeter systems, resulting in improved simulation models and development of sophisticated reconstruction techniques. In this proceeding, highlights are included from s…
Current research in High Energy Cosmic Ray Physics touches on fundamental questions regarding the origin of cosmic rays, their composition, the acceleration mechanisms, and their production. Unambiguous measurements of the energy spectra and of the composition of cosmic rays at the "knee" region could provide some of the answers to the above questions. So far only ground based observations, which rely on sophisticated models describing high energy interactions in the earth's atmosphere, have been possible due to the extremely low particle rates at these energies. A calorimetry based space expe…
Silicon pad sensors are proposed as active material in highly granular sampling calorimeters of future collider experiments such as the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) or the International Linear Collider (ILC). The electromagnetic section of these designs often include O(1000 m$^2$) of silicon pad sensors. For the luminosity measurement, a dedicated forward calorimeter called LumiCal is foreseen. More recently, the CMS experiment has decided to adopt the same concept in its endcap calorimeter upgrade for the HL-LHC. The sensors are typically produced from 6- or 8-inch wafers and consist of a f…
Future long baseline neutrino experiments such as the DUNE experiment under construction at Fermilab will perform precision measurements of neutrino oscillations, including the potential for the discovery of CP violation in the lepton sector. These measurements require an understanding of the unoscillated neutrino beam with unprecedented accuracy. This will be provided by complex near detectors which consist of different subsystems including tracking elements and electromagnetic calorimetry. A high granularity in the calorimeter, provided by scintillator tiles with SiPM readout as used in the …
A new design of highly granular hadronic calorimeter using Glass Resistive Plate Chambers (GRPCs) with embedded electronics has been proposed for the future International Linear Collider (ILC) experiments. It features a 2-bit threshold semi-digital read-out. Several GRPC prototypes with their electronics have been successfully built and tested in pion beams. The design of these detectors is presented along with the test results on efficiency, pad multiplicity, stability and reproducibility.
Test-Beam Performance of the AstroPix Silicon Sensor for Imaging Calorimetry
Pusan National University（釜山国立大学）；Kangwon National University（江原国立大学）；Sungkyunkwan University（成均馆大学）；NASA Goddard Space Flight Center（美国国家航空航天局戈达德太空飞行中心）；Yonsei University（延世大学）；University of Seoul（首尔大学）；Argonne National Laboratory（阿贡国家实验室）；Kyungpook National University（庆北国立大学）
Conceptual Design of a Novel Highly Granular Crystal Electromagnetic Calorimeter for Future Higgs Factories
Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院高能物理研究所）；State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics（粒子探测与电子学国家重点实验室）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院大学）；China Center of Advanced Science and Technology（中国高等科学技术中心）；Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics, School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University（上海交通大学物理与天文学院核物理与粒子物理研究所）；Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University（上海交通大学李政道研究所）；National Key Laboratory of Dark Matter Physics, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Particle Physics and Cosmology, Key Laboratory for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology (MoE)（暗物质物理全国重点实验室、粒子物理与宇宙学上海市重点实验室、粒子天体物理 cosmology 教育部重点实验室）
Design and Performance of a 96-channel Resistive PICOSEC Micromegas Detector for ENUBET
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki（塞萨洛尼基亚里士多德大学）；Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich（慕尼黑路德维希-马克西米利安大学）；CERN（欧洲核子研究组织）；Stony Brook University（石溪大学）；NCSR Demokritos（德墨忒勒斯国家科学研究中心）；University of Bonn（波恩大学）；LIP（粒子物理与实验仪器实验室）；University of Helsinki（赫尔辛基大学）；Jefferson Lab（杰斐逊实验室）；University of Zagreb（萨格勒布大学）；University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学）；CEA-Saclay（法国原子能和替代能源委员会萨克雷中心）；National Technical University of Athens（雅典国立技术大学）；Ruđer Bošković Institute（鲁德·博什科维奇研究所）；University of Virginia（弗吉尼亚大学）
The SDHCAL technological prototype is a $1 \times 1 \times 1.3$ m$^3$ high-granularity Semi-Digital Hadronic CALorimeter using Glass Resistive Plate Chambers as sensitive medium. It is one of the two HCAL options considered by the ILD Collaboration to be proposed for the detector of the future International Linear Collider project. The prototype is made of up to 50 GRPC detectors of 1 m$^2$ size and 3 mm thickness each with an embedded semi-digital electronics readout that is autotriggering and power-pulsed. The GRPC readout is finely segmented into pads of 1 cm$^2$. Measured performances of t…
The International Large Detector (ILD) is a proposed detector for the International Linear Collider (ILC). It has been designed to achieve an excellent jet energy resolution by using Particle Flow Algorithms (PFA), which rely on the ability to separate nearby particles within jets. PFA requires calorimeters with high granularity. The ILD Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) is a sampling calorimeter with thirty tungsten absorber layers. The total thickness of this ECAL is about 24 X$_0$, and it has between 10 and 100 million channels to make high granularity. Silicon sensors are a candidate tech…
Detector-plane prototypes of the very forward calorimetry of a future detector at an e+e- collider have been built and their performance was measured in an electron beam. The detector plane comprises silicon or GaAs pad sensors, dedicated front-end and ADC ASICs, and an FPGA for data concentration. Measurements of the signal-to-noise ratio and the response as a function of the position of the sensor are presented. A deconvolution method is successfully applied, and a comparison of the measured shower shape as a function of the absorber depth with a Monte-Carlo simulation is given.
A high granularity hadronic 1 m3 calorimeter prototype with semi-digital readout has been designed and built. This calorimeter has been made using stainless steel as absorber and Glass Resistive Plates Chambers (GRPC) as active medium, and read out through 1x1 cm2 pads. This prototype aims to demonstrate that this technology fulfills the physics requirements for future linear collider experiments, and also to test the feasibility of building a realistic detector, taking into account design aspects as for instance a fully embedded front-end electronics based on power pulsing system, a compact a…
Radiation therapy with protons as of today utilizes information from x-ray CT in order to estimate the proton stopping power of the traversed tissue in a patient. The conversion from x-ray attenuation to proton stopping power in tissue introduces range uncertainties of the order of 2-3% of the range, uncertainties that are contributing to an increase of the necessary planning margins added to the target volume in a patient. Imaging methods and modalities, such as Dual Energy CT and proton CT, have come into consideration in the pursuit of obtaining an as good as possible estimate of the proton…
A highly granular electromagnetic calorimeter prototype based on tungsten absorber and sampling units equipped with silicon pads as sensitive devices for signal collection is under construction. The full prototype will have in total 30 layers and be read out by about 10000 Si cells of 1 cm^2. A first module consisting of 14 layers and depth of 7.2 radiation lengths at normal incidence, having in total 3024 channels of 1 cm^2, was tested recently with electron beam. We describe the prototype and discuss some preliminary testbeam results.
A large prototype of 1.3m3 was designed and built as a demonstrator of the semi-digital hadronic calorimeter (SDHCAL) concept proposed for the future ILC experiments. The prototype is a sampling hadronic calorimeter of 48 units. Each unit is built of an active layer made of 1m2 Glass Resistive Plate Chamber(GRPC) detector placed inside a cassette whose walls are made of stainless steel. The cassette contains also the electronics used to read out the GRPC detector. The lateral granularity of the active layer is provided by the electronics pick-up pads of 1cm2 each. The cassettes are inserted in…
Particle Flow Algorithms (PFAs) have been proposed as a method of improving the jet energy resolution of future colliding beam detectors. PFAs require calorimeters with high granularity to enable three-dimensional imaging of events. The Calorimeter for the Linear Collider Collaboration (CALICE) is developing and testing prototypes of such highly segmented calorimeters. In this context, a large prototype of a Digital Hadron Calorimeter (DHCAL) was developed and constructed by a group led by Argonne National Laboratory. The DHCAL consists of 52 layers, instrumented with Resistive Plate Chambers …
The High-Granularity Timing Detector is a detector proposed for the ATLAS Phase II upgrade. The detector, based on the Low-Gain Avalanche Detector (LGAD) technology will cover the pseudo-rapidity region of $2.4<|η|<4.0$ with two end caps on each side and a total area of 6.4 $m^2$. The timing performance can be improved by implanting an internal gain layer that can produce signal with a fast rising edge, which improve significantly the signal-to-noise ratio. The required average timing resolution per track for a minimum-ionising particle is 30 ps at the start and 50 ps at the end of the HL-LHC …
Collider detectors have taken advantage of the resolution and accuracy of silicon detectors for at least four decades. Future colliders will need large areas of silicon sensors for low mass trackers and sampling calorimetry. Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS), in which Si diodes and readout circuitry are combined in the same pixels, and can be fabricated in some of standard CMOS processes, are a promising technology for high-granularity and light detectors. In this paper we review 1) the requirements on MAPS for trackers and electromagnetic calorimeters (ECal) at future colliders experimen…
The CALICE collaboration is studying the design of high performance electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters for future International Linear Collider detectors. For the electromagnetic calorimeter, the current baseline choice is a high granularity sampling calorimeter with tungsten as absorber and silicon detectors as sensitive material. A ``physics prototype'' has been constructed, consisting of thirty sensitive layers. Each layer has an active area of 18x18 cm2 and a pad size of 1x1 cm2. The absorber thickness totals 24 radiation lengths. It has been exposed in 2006 and 2007 to electron and…
Temperature dependence of the long-term annealing behavior of neutron irradiated diodes from 8-inch p-type silicon wafers
CERN（欧洲核子研究组织）；Karlsruhe Institute of Technology（卡尔斯鲁厄理工学院）；Heidelberg University（海德堡大学）；Uppsala University（乌普萨拉大学）；Al-Farabi Kazakh National University（阿尔法拉比哈萨克国立大学）；An Najah National University（安纳贾赫国立大学）；HAN University of Applied Sciences（汉应用科学大学）
For the High-Luminosity phase of LHC, the ATLAS experiment is proposing the addition of a High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) in the forward region to mitigate the effects of the increased pile-up. The chosen detection technology is Low Gain Avalanche Detector (LGAD) silicon sensors that can provide an excellent timing resolution below 50 ps. The front-end read-out ASIC must maintain the performance of the sensor, while keeping low power consumption. This paper presents the results on the first prototype of a front-end ASIC, named ALTIROC0, which contains the analog stages (preamplifier an…
The Compact Muon Solenoid Collaboration is designing a new high-granularity endcap calorimeter, HGCAL, to be installed later this decade. As part of this development work, a prototype system was built, with an electromagnetic section consisting of 14 double-sided structures, providing 28 sampling layers. Each sampling layer has an hexagonal module, where a multipad large-area silicon sensor is glued between an electronics circuit board and a metal baseplate. The sensor pads of approximately 1 cm$^2$ are wire-bonded to the circuit board and are readout by custom integrated circuits. The prototy…
The CALICE Semi-Digital Hadronic CALorimeter (SDHCAL) is the first technological prototype in a family of high-granularity calorimeters developed by the CALICE Collaboration to equip the experiments of future lepton colliders. The SDHCAL is a sampling calorimeter using stainless steel for absorber and Glass Resistive Plate Chambers (GRPC) as a sensitive medium. The GRPC are read out by 1~cm $\times$ 1~cm pickup pads combined to a multi-threshold electronics. The prototype was exposed to hadron beams in both the CERN PS and the SPS beamlines in 2015 allowing the test of the SDHCAL in a large en…
