Liquid scintillator (LS) is widely used in various neutrino oscillation experiments, in particular, the reactor neutrino experiments. The complex absorption and re-emission processes of optical photons are known to be an important source of the non-linear and non-uniform response of LS detectors. Precise simulation of light propagation in LS is highly desirable to model the detector response and reduce the systematic errors. In this paper, we develop a novel optical model which can completely deal with the competitive photon absorption and subsequent re-emission processes of the LS components. It allows to directly plug in the laboratory measurements of the LS components to model any LS composition. Extensive measurements have been performed to obtain the essential optical parameters for this model. We validate the model with a bench-top experiment featuring a small LS volume. Furthermore, we demonstrate that for any given detector geometry, this model provides the capability of optimizing the LS recipe to maximize the light collection. It is valuable for designing future LS-based detectors and improving the agreement between Monte Carlo and data for current neutrino experiments.
For the simulation of the scintillation and Cherenkov light propagation in large liquid scintillator detectors a detailed knowledge about the absorption and emission spectra of the scintillator molecules is mandatory. Furthermore reemission probabilities and quantum yields of the scintillator components influence the light propagation inside the liquid. Absorption and emission properties are presented for liquid scintillators using 2,5-Diphenyloxazole (PPO) and 4-bis-(2-Methylstyryl)benzene (bis-MSB) as primary and secondary wavelength shifter. New measurements of the quantum yields for variou…
Organic liquid scintillators have been used for decades in many neutrino physics experiments. They are particularly suited for the detection of low-energy neutrinos where energy and timing information is required. Organic liquid scintillators exhibit advantages such as high light yield, cost effectiveness, radio purity, and more. However, they also entail disadvantages, most prominently a lack of vertex resolution and particle identification. In recent years, various novel ideas have emerged to improve the performance of organic liquid scintillators. In this review, novel approaches to organic…
The electron antineutrino spectrum in the Stereo reactor experiment (ILL Grenoble) is measured via the inverse beta decay signals in an organic liquid scintillator. The six target cells of the Stereo detector are filled with about 1800 litres of Gd-loaded liquid scintillator optimised for the requirements of the experiment. These target cells are surrounded by similar cells containing liquid scintillator without the Gd-loading. The development and characteristics of these scintillators are reported. In particular, the transparency, light production and pulse shape discrimination capabilities o…
Linear alkylbenzene has been recently used as the solvent of liquid scintillator by several neutrino experiments. The energy quenching effect of a linear alkylbenzene based liquid scintillator is studied in this paper with a 14 MeV D-T compact neutron generator, to improve the energy non-linearity modelling of this kind of detectors. The recoiled proton in the liquid scintillator has a kinetic energy ranging from 0.5 MeV to 13 MeV. The data is used to extract the parameters of the Birk's law, an empirical model to describe the energy quenching effect of the liquid scintillator.
Molecular structure, electric property, and scintillation and quenching of liquid scintillators
Tsinghua University（清华大学）；Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University（清华大学工程物理系）；Center for High Energy Physics, Tsinghua University（清华大学高能物理中心）；Key Laboratory of Particle & Radiation Imaging (Tsinghua University), Ministry of Education（教育部粒子与辐射成像重点实验室（清华大学））
Results are presented from a small-scale experiment to investigate the use of room temperature organic liquid scintillators as the active medium for a time projection chamber (TPC). The optical properties of liquid scintillators have long been known, but their ability to transport charge has remained, until now, largely untested. The idea of using room temperature liquids as an active medium for an ionisation chamber was first presented in \cite{EnglerTMS}. Since then the range of liquid scintillators available has been greatly developed. We present successful transport of ionization charges i…
Over the course of several decades, organic liquid scintillators have formed the basis for successful neutrino detectors. Gadolinium-loaded liquid scintillators provide efficient background suppression for electron antineutrino detection at nuclear reactor plants. In the Double Chooz reactor antineutrino experiment, a newly developed beta-diketonate gadolinium-loaded scintillator is utilized for the first time. Its large scale production and characterization are described. A new, light yield matched metal-free companion scintillator is presented. Both organic liquids comprise the target and "G…
Stainless steel is the material used for the storage vessels and piping systems of LAB-based liquid scintillator in JUNO experiment. Aging is recognized as one of the main degradation mechanisms affecting the properties of liquid scintillator. LAB-based liquid scintillator aging experiments were carried out in different material of containers (type 316 and 304 stainless steel and glass) at two different temperature (40 and 25 degrees Celsius). For the continuous liquid scintillator properties tests, the light yield and the absorption spectrum are nearly the same as that of the unaged one. The …
The fluorescence decay-time constants have been measured for several scintillator mixtures based on phenyl-o-xylylethane (PXE) and linear alkylbenzene (LAB) solvents. The resulting values are of relevance for the physics performance of the proposed large-volume liquid scintillator detector LENA (Low Energy Neutrino Astronomy). In particular, the impact of the measured values to the search for proton decay via p -> K+ antineutrino is evaluated in this work.
Several liters of an organic liquid scintillator (LS) loaded with Nd have been made. We report on performances of this scintillator in terms of optical properties, radiopurity and light yield for a Nd concentration of 6.5 g/l. A possible application to search for the 150Nd neutrinoless double beta decay with a 10-ton scale LS detector is discussed together with further improvements.
In this work we report the performances and the chemical and physical properties of a (2 x 1.2) ton organic liquid scintillator target doped with Gd up to ~0.1%, and the results of a 2 year long stability survey. In particular we have monitored the amount of both Gd and primary fluor actually in solution, the optical and fluorescent properties of the Gd-doped liquid scintillator (GdLS) and its performances as a neutron detector, namely neutron capture efficiency and average capture time. The experimental survey is ongoing, the target being continuously monitored. After two years from the dopin…
The organic liquid scintillator used in the LVD experiment (INFN Gran Sasso National Laboratory) has been exposed to an Am-Be neutron source to measure the light response function for neutron energies in the region from about 4 to 11 MeV. A full Monte Carlo simulation, incorporating the detector response, is used to generate neutron scattering spectra which are matched to the observed ones to determine the quenching factors. The obtained light output response is well described by the semi-empirical Birks model. The results, consistent with those obtained by other authors using similar hydrocar…
Solar neutrinos interact with double beta decay detectors (DBD) and hence will contribute to backgrounds (BG) for DBD experiments. Background contributions due to solar neutrinos are evaluated for their interactions with atomic electrons and nuclei in liquid scintillation detectors used for DBD experiments. They are shown to be serious backgrounds for high sensitivity DBD experiments to search for the Majorana neutrino masses in the inverted and normal hierarchy regions.
Many experiments in particle physics, in particular in the field of neutrino searches, rely on organic liquid scintillators as target and detection material. The size of these detectors was continously growing in the last decades, up to the kiloton scale. In several cases these detectors are located at sites with enhanced safety requirements as underground laboratories or in the vicinity of nuclear reactors. Therefore, there is strong demand in liquids which are safe with respect to aspects as fire protection, human health or environmental pollution. In particular, properties as the flash poin…
It is shown that a large volume liquid organic scintillator detector with an energy resolution of 10 keV at 200 keV 1 sigma will be sensitive to solar pp-neutrino, if operated at the target radiopurity levels for the Borexino detector, or the solar neutrino project of KamLAND.
The efficiency and energy resolution of the MAST neutron camera detectors, based on liquid scintillator of the EJ-301 type, is lower than cylindrical detector of similar size. An experimental investigation has identified light attenuation as the main cause of this deterioration. This finding is supported by Monte Carlo electron and photon transport calculations.
Rare-earth (Yb/Gd) complexes with neutral organophosphorus ligands are briefly discussed for their application in liquid scintillation technique. To evaluate the principle feasibility of a high rare-earth loaded scintillator, the ytterbium chloride complexes with tri-isoamylphosphine oxides were synthesized. Relative scintillation efficiency (RSE) for two Yb concentrations (78 and 88 g/L) was measured by means of the internal conversion electron exitation from Cs-137. The results obtained were 50 and 40% respectively.
The result of studies of the energy and spatial resolution of a large volume liquid scintillator detector are presented. The relations are obtained, which allows an estimation of the detector's energy and spatial resolutions without modeling. The relations are verified with the data obtained with the CTF detector, which is the prototype of the new detector for solar neutrinos, called Borexino. An event reconstruction technique using charge and time data from the PMTs is analyzed using the obtained relations in order to improve the detector resolution. Algorithms for the energy and coordinates …
The Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO) uses 20k tons of liquid scintillator (LS)to detect neutrinos. The content of radioactive substances in the liquid scintillator will affect theexperimental results. JUNO will use counter current water extraction to reduce the radioactive metalions inside the LS. In this article, The factors that affect the final water extraction like the partitioncoefficient and the factors that affect it, the optimal mass transfer droplet size, the flow rate ratio,theoretical stage and different working mode (LS as continuous phase or dispersed phase) have b…
A novel formulation to dope organic liquid scintillators (OLS) with indium at concentrations up to 10% is presented: it is based on specific indium carboxylate compounds adequately synthesized. The produced In-OLS has been characterized: it has light yield 8500 ph/MeV at indium concentration 5.5% and light attenuation length of 2,5 m at wavelength of 430 nm. The scintillator properties were stable during all time of investigation (~ 1 years). The produced In-OLS is compared to other In-OLS formulations and shows superior performances. The developed methodic to metal dope OLS can be easily exte…
Slow liquid scintillator Cherenkov detectors have been proposed as part of several future neutrino experiments because they can provide both directionality and energy measurements. This feature is expected to enhance the sensitivities for MeV-scale neutrino physics, including solar physics, the search for supernova relic neutrino, and the study of geo-sciences. In this study, the characteristics of a slow liquid scintillator were investigated, along with the light yields and decay time constants for various combinations of linear alkylbenzene (LAB), 2,5-diphenyloxazole (PPO), and 1,4-bis (2-me…
Three-dimensional finely grained plastic scintillator detectors bring many advantages in particle detectors, allowing a massive active target which enables a high-precision tracking of interaction products, excellent calorimetry and a sub-nanosecond time resolution. Whilst such detectors can be scaled up to several-tonnes, as required by future neutrino experiments, a relatively long production time, where each single plastic-scintillator element is independently manufactured and machined, together with potential challenges in the assembly, complicates their realisation. In this manuscript we …
Organic liquid scintillators are used in many neutrino physics experiments of the past and present. In particular for low energy neutrinos when realtime and energy information are required, liquid scintillators have several advantages compared to other technologies. In many cases the organic liquid needs to be loaded with metal to enhance the neutrino signal over background events. Several metal loaded scintillators of the past suffered from chemical and optical instabilities, limiting the performance of these neutrino detectors. Different ways of metal loading are described in the article wit…
Liquid scintillating phantoms have been proposed as a means to perform real-time 3D dosimetry for proton therapy treatment plan verification. We have studied what effect radiation damage to the scintillator will have upon this application. We have performed measurements of the degradation of the light yield and optical attenuation length of liquid scintillator and water-based liquid scintillator after irradiation by 201 MeV proton beams that deposited doses of approximately 52 Gy, 300 Gy, and 800 Gy in the scintillator. Liquid scintillator and water-based liquid scintillator (composed of $5\%$…
Water-based liquid scintillators (WbLS) present an attractive target medium for large-scale detectors with the ability to enhance the separation of Cherenkov and scintillation signals from a single target. This work characterizes the scintillation properties of WbLS samples based on LAB/PPO liquid scintillator (LS). X-ray luminescence spectra, decay profiles, and relative light yields are measured for WbLS of varying LS concentration as well as for pure LS with a range of PPO concentrations up to 90 g/L. The scintillation properties of the WbLS are related to the precursor LAB/PPO: starting fr…
The response of the liquid scintillator array Nordball to neutrons in the energy range 1.5 < T_n < 10 MeV has been measured by time of flight using a 252Cf fission source. Fission fragments were detected by means of a thin-film plastic scintillator. The measured differential and integral neutron detection efficiencies agree well with predictions of a Monte Carlo simulation of the detector which models geometry accurately and incorporates the measured, non-linear proton light output as a function of energy. The ability of the model to provide systematic corrections to photoneutron cross section…
A simple device for determining the azimuthal location of a source of gamma radiation, using ideas from astrophysical gamma-ray burst detection, is described. A compact and robust detector built from eight identical modules, each comprising a plate of CsI(Tl) scintillator coupled to a photomultiplier tube, can locate a point source of gamma rays with degree-scale precision by comparing the count rates in the different modules. Sensitivity to uniform environmental background is minimal.
Inorganic scintillators are widely used for scientific, industrial and medical applications. The development of 3D printing with inorganic scintillators would allow fast creation of detector prototypes for registration of ionizing radiation, such as alpha and beta, gamma particles in thin layers of active material and soft X-ray radiation. This article reports on the technical work and scientific achievements that aimed at developing a new inorganic scintillation filament to be used for the 3D printing of composite scintillator materials: study and definition of the scintillator composition; d…
Liquid scintillator experiments for neutrinoless double beta decay search have high sensitivity based on the ultra low background environment and high scalability. This paper describes an overview of current ongoing projects KamLAND-Zen and SNO+.
The detectors based on the liquid scintillator (LS) monitored by an array of photo-multiplier tubes (PMT) are often used in low energy experiments such as neutrino oscillation studies and search for dark matter. Detectors of this kind operate in an energy range spanning from hundreds of keV to a few GeV providing a few percent resolution at energies above 1 MeV and allowing to observe fine spectral features. This article gives a brief overview of relevant physical processes and introduces a new universal simulation tool LSMC (Liquid Scintillator Monte Carlo) for simulation of LS-based detector…
There is rising interest in organic scintillators with low scattering length for future neutrino detectors. Therefore, a new scintillator system was developed based on admixtures of paraffin wax in linear alkyl benzene. The transparency and viscosity of this gel-like material can be tuned by temperature adjustment. Whereas it is a colorless transparent liquid at temperatures around 40C it has a milky wax structure below 20C. The production and properties of such a scintillator as well as its advantages compared to transparent liquids are described.
The front face of the CDF central calorimeter is being equipped with a new Preshower detector, based on scintillator tiles read out by WLS fibers, in order to cope with the luminosity increase provided by the Main Injector during the Tevatron's Run II data taking. A light yield of about 40 pe/MIP at the tile exit was obtained, exceeding the design requirements.
We present a scintillator based detector able to measure both spatial and energy information at High repetition rate (HRR) with a relatively simple design. It has been built at the Center of Pulsed Laser (CLPU) in Salamanca and tested in the proton accelerator at the Centro de Micro-Analisis de Materiales (CMAM) in Madrid. The detector has been demonstrated to work in HRR mode by reproducing the performance of the radiochromic film detector. It represents a new class of on-line detectors for Laser-plasma physics experiments in the new emerging High Power and HRR laser systems.
The Tokai-to-Kamioka (T2K) experiment is a second generation long baseline neutrino oscillation experiment which aims at a sensitive search for the nu_e appearance. The main design features of the T2K near detectors located at 280 m from the target are presented. Scintillator counters developed for the T2K near detectors are described. Readout of the counters is provided via WLS fibers embedded into S-shape grooves in a scintillator and viewed from both ends by multi-pixel avalanche photodiodes operating in a limited Geiger mode. A desription, operational principles and the results of tests of…
Electron antineutrinos are detected in organic liquid scintillator based neutrino experiments by means of the inverse beta decay, producing both a positron and a neutron. The positron may form a bound state together with an electron, called positronium (Ps). The longer-lived spin state of Ps, orthopositronium (o-Ps) has a lifetime of about $3\,\mathrm{ns}$ in organic liquid scintillators (LS). Its formation changes the time distribution of photon emission, which affects positron reconstruction algorithms and allows the application of pulse shape discrimination (PSD) to distinguish electron fro…
The NOvA collaboration blended and delivered 8.8 kt (2.72M gal) of liquid scintillator as the active detector medium to its near and far detectors. The composition of this scintillator was specifically developed to satisfy NOvA's performance requirements. A rigorous set of quality control procedures was put in place to verify that the incoming components and the blended scintillator met these requirements. The scintillator was blended commercially in Hammond, IN. The scintillator was shipped to the NOvA detectors using dedicated stainless steel tanker trailers cleaned to food grade.
We studied the temperature dependence of the light yield of the linear alkyl benzene (LAB)-based and mesitylene-based liquid scintillators. The light yield increases by 23% for both liquid scintillators when the temperature is lowered from $26\;^{\circ}$C to $-40\;^{\circ }$C, correcting for the temperature response of the photomultiplier tube. The measurements help to understand the energy response of the liquid scintillator detectors. Especially, the next generation reactor neutrino experiments for neutrino mass hierarchy, such as the Jiangmen Underground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO), require…
An air shower array of seven plastic scintillation detectors has been built and commissioned at an altitude of 2200 meter above sea level in the Eastern Himalayas (Darjeeling). Continuous measurement of shower rate using this array is going on since the end of January, 2018. The method of measurement and experimental results are presented in this article.
Liquid scintillator detectors are playing an increasingly important role in low-energy neutrino experiments. In this article, we describe a generic energy response model of liquid scintillator detectors that provides energy estimations of sub-percent accuracy. This model fits a minimal set of physically-motivated parameters that capture the essential characteristics of scintillator response and that can naturally account for changes in scintillator over time, helping to avoid associated biases or systematic uncertainties. The model employs a one-step calculation and look-up tables, yielding an…
We report on studies of non-toxic scintillating liquid useful for large surface detectors. Arrays of liquid scintillators offer a rather simple tool for detecting charged particles traversing a surface and tracking their path through a defined volume. Insertion of wavelength shifting fibres along the liquid scintillating containers significantly improves the light collection at the two ends of the scintillators. We have demonstrated that we can achieve timing resolution of O(1 ns) allowing good spatial resolution. Liquid scintillators with fibres read by Photo-multipliers or SiPMs provide an i…
Purification of the 278 tons of liquid scintillator and 889 tons of buffer shielding for the Borexino solar neutrino detector was performed with a system that combined distillation, water extraction, gas stripping and filtration. The purification of the scintillator achieved unprecedented low backgrounds for the large scale liquid scintillation detector. This paper describes the principles of operation, design, construction and commissioning of the purification system, and reviews the requirements and methods to achieve system cleanliness and leak-tightness.
We report on the production and characterization of liquid scintillators for the detection of electron antineutrinos by the Daya Bay Reactor Neutrino Experiment. One hundred eighty-five tons of gadolinium-loaded (0.1% by mass) liquid scintillator (Gd-LS) and two hundred tons of unloaded liquid scintillator (LS) were successfully produced from a linear-alkylbenzene (LAB) solvent in six months. The scintillator properties, the production and purification systems, and the quality assurance and control (QA/QC) procedures are described.
Environmental radioactivity is a dominant background for rare decay search experiments, and it is difficult to completely remove such an impurity from detector vessels. We propose a scintillation balloon as the active vessel of a liquid scintillator in order to identify this undesirable radioactivity. According to our feasibility studies, the scintillation balloon enables the bismuth--polonium sequential decay to be tagged with a 99.7\% efficiency, assuming a KamLAND (Kamioka Liquid scintillator AntiNeutrino Detector)-type liquid scintillator detector. This tagging of sequential decay using al…
Nonlinearity of the liquid scintillator energy response is a key to measuring the neutrino energy spectrum in reactor neutrino experiments such as Daya Bay and JUNO. We measured in laboratory the nonlinearity of the Linear Alkyl Benzene based liquid scintillator, which is used in Daya Bay and will be used in JUNO, via Compton scattering process. By tagging the scattered gamma from the liquid scintillator sample simultaneously at seven angles, the instability of the system was largely cancelled. The accurately measured nonlinearity will improve the precision of the $θ_{13}$, $Δm^2$, and reactor…
Liquid scintillator detectors are widely used in modern neutrino studies. The unique optical properties of semiconducting nanocrystals, known as quantum dots, offer intriguing possibilities for improving standard liquid scintillator, especially when combined with new photodetection technology. Quantum dots also provide a means to dope scintillator with candidate isotopes for neutrinoless double beta decay searches. In this work, the first studies of the scintillation properties of quantum-dot-doped liquid scintillator using both UV light and radioactive sources are presented.
Stainless steel is a candidate of the inner surface of the storage container for LAB-based Gadolinium loaded liquid scintillator (Gd-LS) to be used in the JSNS$^2$ neutrino detector. Aging effect on Gd concentration of Gd-LS was investigated with the Gd-LS sample stored in the passivated stainless steel bottle in two independent methods. The direct comparison of the neutron capture time measurement showed that there is no significant degradation of the capture time after 602 days aging. Titration was performed to measure Gd concentration, and the result after 466 days aging is consistent with …
The proton light yield of liquid scintillators is an important property in the context of their use in large-scale neutrino experiments, with direct implications for neutrino-proton scattering measurements and the discrimination of fast neutrons from inverse beta-decay coincidence signals. This work presents the first measurement of the proton light yield of a water-based liquid scintillator (WbLS) formulated from 5% linear alkyl benzene (LAB), at energies below 20 MeV, as well as a measurement of the proton light yield of a pure LAB + 2 g/L 2,5-diphenyloxazole (PPO) mixture (LABPPO). The meas…
To overcome the problem of inefficient computing time and unreliable results in MCNP5 calculation, a two-step method is adopted to calculate the energy deposition of prompt gamma-rays in detectors for depleted uranium spherical shells under D-T neutrons irradiation. In the first step, the gamma-ray spectrum for energy below 7 MeV is calculated by MCNP5 code; secondly, the electron recoil spectrum in a BC501A liquid scintillator detector is simulated based on EGSnrc Monte Carlo Code with the gamma-ray spectrum from the first step as input. The comparison of calculated results with experimental …
We are designing an all-scintillator Compton gamma imager for use in security investigations and remediation actions involving radioactive threat material. To satisfy requirements for a rugged and portable instrument, we have chosen solid scintillator for the active volumes of both the scatter and absorber detectors. Using the BEAMnrc/EGSnrc Monte Carlo simulation package, we have constructed models using four different materials for the scatter detector: LaBr_3, NaI, CaF_2 and PVT. We have compared the detector performances using angular resolution, efficiency, and image resolution. We find t…
A detector designed to measure early particle showers has been installed in front of the central CDF calorimeter at the Tevatron. This new preshower detector is based on scintillator tiles coupled to wavelength-shifting fibers read out by multi-anode photomultipliers and has a total of 3,072 readout channels. The replacement of the old gas detector was required due to an expected increase in instantaneous luminosity of the Tevatron collider in the next few years. Calorimeter coverage, jet energy resolution, and electron and photon identification are among the expected improvements. The final d…
Technology developed for the T2K electromagnetic calorimeter has been adapted to make a small footprint, reliable, segmented detector to characterise anti-neutrinos emitted by nuclear reactors. The device has been developed and demonstrated by the University of Liverpool and underwent field tests at the Wylfa Magnox Reactor on Anglesey, UK. It was situated in a 20\,ft ISO shipping container, above ground, roughly 60\,m from the 1.5\,\GWt\ reactor core. Based on the design of the T2K Near Detector ECal, the device detects anti-neutrinos through the distinctive delayed coincidence signal of inve…
