First study of small-cell 3D Silicon Pixel Detectors for the High Luminosity LHC
E. Currás, J. Duarte-Campderrós, M. Fernández, A. García, G. Gómez, J. González, R. Jaramillo, D. Moya, I. Vila, S. Hidalgo, M. Manna, G. Pellegrini, D. Quirion… 展开作者
E. Currás, J. Duarte-Campderrós, M. Fernández, A. García, G. Gómez, J. González, R. Jaramillo, D. Moya, I. Vila, S. Hidalgo, M. Manna, G. Pellegrini, D. Quirion, D. Pitzl, A. Ebrahimi, T. Rohe, S. Wiederkehr
A study of 3D pixel sensors of cell size 50 μm x 50 μm fabricated at IMB-CNM using double-sided n-on-p 3D technology is presented. Sensors were bump-bonded to the ROC4SENS readout chip. For the first time in such a small-pitch hybrid assembly, the sensor response to ionizing radiation in a test beam of 5.6 GeV electrons was studied. Results for non-irradiated sensors are presented, including efficiency, charge sharing, signal-to-noise, and resolution for different incidence angles.
Study of the readout chip and silicon sensor degradation for the CMS pixel upgrade
混合硅像素探测器目前用于紧凑型μ子螺线管（CMS）实验的最内部跟踪系统。已经证明了大型强子对撞机（LHC）运行几年所能承受的辐射通量，尽管预计硅探测器靠近相互作用点的部分会出现一些退化。在大型强子对撞机升级阶段，硅像素探测器预计的剂量水平将高得多。为了面对这个方面，已经在硅传感器和读出芯片上执行了具有高于$\mathcal{O}(10^{15})$ n $_{\textrm{eq}}$ /cm $^2$的注量的专用辐照测试。在操作中的传感器和读出芯片的能量密度的函数的变化。的电荷收集效率进行了研究：部分恢复的检测器的效率，可以通过操作的检测器在一个受控的环境中，并在较高的偏置电压。
In this paper the results of a beam test characterization campaign of 3D trench silicon pixel sensors are presented. A time resolution in the order of 10 ps was measured both for non-irradiated and irradiated sensors up to a fluence of $2.5 \cdot 10^{16}\,1\,MeV\, n_{eq}\,cm^{-2}$. This feature and a detection efficiency close to $99\%$ make this sensors one of the best candidates for 4D tracking detectors in High-Energy-Physics experiments.
It is foreseen to significantly increase the luminosity of the LHC in order to harvest the maximum physics potential. Especially the Phase-II-Upgrade foreseen for 2023 will mean unprecedented radiation levels, significantly beyond the limits of the Silicon trackers currently employed. All-Silicon central trackers are being studied in ATLAS, CMS and LHCb, with extremely radiation-hard Silicon sensors to be employed on the innermost layers. Within the RD50 Collaboration, a large R&D program has been underway for more than a decade across experimental boundaries to develop Silicon sensors with su…
Performance studies of a pixel tracker in the Silicon Detector (SiD) concept for a future linear collider
使用SiD探测器的模拟框架来研究Higgs -> mumu衰变通道，表明可以通过提高带电粒子动量分辨率来实现信号显著性的显著增益。然而，对Z-> mumu衰减通道的更详细的模拟表明，通过增加跟踪器粒度无法实现分辨率的显着提高。相反，使用寿命较长的粒子对缺失/死顶点层进行的探测器稳定性研究显示了轨道分辨率的增加。现有的9.15 cm x 25 μm硅条几何形状被100 x 100微米硅像素取代，将次级顶点分辨率提高了100倍。通过使用密集射流对高度准直事件进行的研究表明，动量分辨率可以提高2倍，大大提高了信号的重要性，但需要将像素大小减小到25微米。将跟踪器粒度从9.15 cm条带升级到微米尺寸的像素需要增加传感器通道的数量和复杂性，但在大多数线性对撞机物理学中仅提供小的改进。
The strategies for and the performance of the CMS silicon tracking system alignment during the 2015-2018 data-taking period of the LHC are described. The alignment procedures during and after data taking are explained. Alignment scenarios are also derived for use in the simulation of the detector response. Systematic effects, related to intrinsic symmetries of the alignment task or to external constraints, are discussed and illustrated for different scenarios.
Planar silicon pixel sensors with modified n$^+$-implantation shapes based on the IBL pixel sensor were designed in Dortmund. The sensors with a pixel size of $250\,μ$m $\times$ $50\,μ$m are produced in n$^+$-in-n sensor technology. The charge collection efficiency should improve with electrical field strength maxima created by the different n$^+$-implantation shapes. Therefore, higher particle detection efficiencies at lower bias voltages could be achieved. The modified pixel designs and the IBL standard design are placed on one sensor to test and compare the designs. The sensor can be read o…
The basic principle of operation of silicon sensors with resistive read-out is built-in charge sharing. Resistive Silicon Detectors (RSD, also known as AC-LGAD), exploiting the signals seen on the electrodes surrounding the impact point, achieve excellent space and time resolutions even with very large pixels. In this paper, a TCT system using a 1064 nm picosecond laser is used to characterize sensors from the second RSD production at the Fondazione Bruno Kessler. The paper first introduces the parametrization of the errors in the determination of the position and time coordinates in RSD, then…
In this paper, we describe the development of monolithic pixel detectors by using a Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) technology for X-ray and charged particle applications. The detectors are based on a 0.2 μm CMOS fully depleted SOI process (Lapis Semiconductor Co., Ltd). The SOI wafer consists of a thick high-resistivity substrate for sensing and a thin low resistivity Si layer for CMOS circuits. We developed the integration-type SOI pixel detector, INTPIX4 mainly for X-ray imaging; it is made of a Float Zone (FZ) or Czochralski (Cz) silicon wafer. Since 2005, Cz SOI detectors were used initially. …
Initial performance assessment and calibration techniques of the production monolithic silicon pixel detector ASIC for the detection of electromagnetic showers of TeV energy in the FASER experiment at the LHC
Testbeam studies of pre-prototype silicon strip sensors for the LHCb UT upgrade project
LHCb实验正准备在2018-2019年进行重大升级。升级的关键组件之一是位于实验分析磁体上游的新硅跟踪器。上游跟踪器（UT）将由硅条探测器的四个平面组成，每个平面覆盖约2 m $^2$的面积。这些探测器的一个重要考虑因素是它们在暴露于大辐射剂量后的性能。在这篇文章中，我们提出了预原型的n-in-p和p-in-n传感器，已被照射的能量密度高达$4.0\times10^{14}$ $n_{\rm eq}$ cm $^{-2}$的测试束结果。
Novel Multi-pixel Silicon Photon Detectors and Applications in T2K
如今，诸如高能物理（HEP）、医学成像设备、便携式辐射探测器等的众多领域，需要一种坚固、小型、可靠和容易获得的光子检测器，其在各种环境中，例如在强磁场存在下是稳定的。最近可用的$\sim$ 1 mm $^{\textrm{2}}$有源区多像素光子计数器（MPPC）传感器，由滨松光子学公司生产，已被发现是可靠的，是一个有吸引力的选择，用于HEP应用。以下传感器特性已经过T2 K合作组织的全面测试：增益、暗噪声、检测效率、可靠性。这些似乎是稳定的;此外，还评估了许多器械之间的特征扩散。具有较大面积的传感器正在开发用于成像和直接与闪烁体耦合的目的。
During the era of the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) the devices in its experiments will be subjected to increased radiation levels with high fluxes of neutrons and charged hadrons, especially in the inner detectors. A systematic program of radiation tests with neutrons and charged hadrons is being carried out by the CMS and ATLAS Collaborations in view of the upgrade of the experiments, in order to cope with the higher luminosity at HL-LHC and the associated increase in the pile-up events and radiation fluxes. In this work, results from a complementary radiation study with $^{60}$Co-$γ$ photons…
We propose the use of germanium-on-silicon technology for indirect time-of-flight based three-dimensional sensing, and demonstrate a novel lock-in pixel featuring high quantum efficiency and large frequency bandwidth. Compared to silicon pixels, germanium-on-silicon pixels simultaneously maintain a high quantum efficiency and a high demodulation contrast deep into GHz frequency regime, which enable consistently superior depth accuracy in both indoor and outdoor scenarios. Physical model, numerical simulation, device fabrication and characterization, system performance comparison, and laser saf…
The tracking detector of ATLAS, one of the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), will be upgraded in 2024-2026 to cope with the challenging environment conditions of the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC). The LPNHE, in collaboration with FBK and INFN, has produced 130~$μ$m thick $n-on-p$ silicon pixel sensors which can withstand the expected large particle fluences at HL- LHC, while delivering data at high rate with excellent hit efficiency. Such sensors were tested on beam before and after irradiation both at CERN-SPS and at DESY, and their performances are presented in this paper. Beam …
We present a concept to improve the spatial resolution of silicon pixel-detectors via the implementation of a sub-pixel cross-coupling, which introduces directional charge sharing between pixels. The charge-collection electrode is segmented into sub-pixels and each sub-pixel is coupled to the closest sub-pixel of the neighboring pixel. Such coupling schema is evaluated for a model sensor design with $50 μm \times 50 μm$ pixels and AC-coupled sub-pixels. A first-order SPICE simulation is used, to determine feasible coupling strengths and assess the influence on the charge-collection efficiency.…
Timepix3 is a multi-purpose readout ASIC for hybrid pixel detectors. It can measure time and energy simultaneously by employing time-of-arrival (ToA) and time-over-threshold (ToT) techniques. Both methods are systematically affected by timewalk. In this paper, a method for pixel-by-pixel calibration of the time response is presented. Assemblies of Timepix3 ASICs bump-bonded to thin planar silicon pixel sensors of different thicknesses between 50 um and 150 um are calibrated and characterised in particle beams. For minimum ionising particles, time resolutions down to 0.72 $\pm$ 0.04 ns are achi…
The CLIC Tracker Detector (CLICTD) is a monolithic pixelated sensor chip produced in a $180$ nm imaging CMOS process built on a high-resistivity epitaxial layer. The chip, designed in the context of the CLIC tracking detector study, comprises a matrix of ${16\times128}$ elongated pixels, each measuring ${300\times30}$ $μ$m$^2$. To ensure prompt charge collection, every elongated pixel is segmented in eight sub-pixels, each containing a collection diode and a separate analog front-end. A simultaneous $8$-bit time measurement with $10$ ns time bins and $5$-bit energy measurement with programmabl…
As part of its HL-LHC upgrade program, CMS is developing a High Granularity Calorimeter (HGCAL) to replace the existing endcap calorimeters. The HGCAL will be realised as a sampling calorimeter, including an electromagnetic compartment comprising 28 layers of silicon pad detectors with pad areas of 0.5 - 1.0 cm2 interspersed with absorbers. Prototype modules, based on 6-inch hexagonal silicon pad sensors with 128 channels, have been constructed and include many of the features required for this challenging detector. In 2016, beam tests of sampling configurations made from these modules have be…
The CMS Phase-1 pixel detector was extracted from the underground cavern after the end of the LHC Run-2 in 2019 and has been kept cold to protect the silicon sensors during the long shutdown period (LS2) in 2019-2021. The LHC is now preparing for the next installment of the data taking beginning 2022. The Phase-1 pixel detector is scheduled to be installed this year and is going through a series of refurbishment and repairs to improve the quality of the collected data and enhance the operational experience. The innermost barrel layer has been replaced with new modules and features improved rea…
The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) is one of two general-purpose detectors that reconstruct the products of high energy particle interactions at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. The silicon pixel detector is the innermost component of the CMS tracking system. It determines the trajectories of charged particles originating from the interaction region with high resolution enabling precise momentum and impact parameter measurements in the tracker. It is designed to operate in the high particle density environment of the LHC. The calibration of the pixel detector plays an important role in its perf…
We derive expressions for the time resolution of silicon detectors, using the Landau theory and a PAI model for describing the charge deposit of high energy particles. First we use the centroid time of the induced signal and derive analytic expressions for the three components contributing to the time resolution, namely charge deposit fluctuations, noise and fluctuations of the signal shape due to weighting field variations. Then we derive expressions for the time resolution using leading edge discrimination of the signal for various electronics shaping times. Time resolution of silicon detect…
During the high-luminosity phase of the LHC (HL-LHC), planned to start around 2027, the accelerator is expected to deliver an instantaneous peak luminosity of up to $7.5\times10^{34}$ cm$^{-2}$s$^{-1}$. A total integrated luminosity of $3000$ or even $4000$~fb$^{-1}$ is foreseen to be delivered to the general purpose detectors ATLAS and CMS over a decade, thereby increasing the discovery potential of the LHC experiments significantly. The CMS detector will undergo a major upgrade for the HL-LHC, with entirely new tracking detectors consisting of an Outer Tracker and Inner Tracker. However, the…
In next ten years, the Large Hadron Collider will be upgraded to the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC), resulting in ten time more integrated luminosity. To withstand the much harsher radiation and occupancy conditions of the HL-LHC, the inner tracker of the ATLAS detector must be redesigned and rebuilt completely. The design of the ATLAS Upgrade inner tracker (ITk) has already been defined. It consists of several layers of silicon particle detectors. The innermost layers will be composed of silicon pixel sensors, and the outer layers will consist of silicon microstrip sensors. This paper will focu…
Sterile neutrinos are a minimal extension of the Standard Model of Particle Physics. A laboratory-based approach to search for this particle is via tritium beta-decay, where a sterile neutrino would cause a kink-like spectral distortion. The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino (KATRIN) experiment extended by a multi-pixel Silicon Drift Detector system has the potential to reach an unprecedented sensitivity to the keV-scale sterile neutrino in a lab-based experiment. The new detector system combines good spectroscopic performance with a high rate capability. In this work, we report about the characteriz…
For the purpose of withstanding very high radiation doses, silicon pixel sensors with a 3D electrode geometry are being developed. Detectors of this kind are highly interesting for harch radiation environments such as expected in the High Luminosity LHC, but also for space physics and medical applications. In this paper, prototype sensors developed at SINTEF are presented and results from tests in a pion beam at CERN are given. These tests shows that these 3D sensors perform as expected with full efficiency at bias voltages between 5 and 15V.
