分子外流是吸积的直接结果，因此它们代表了对高质量恒星形成早期阶段仍然知之甚少的吸积过程的最佳示踪剂之一。以前的研究表明，SiO丰度随着大质量年轻恒星天体的演化而减少，这可能是因为喷流活动的衰减，正如在低质量恒星形成区所看到的那样。利用APEX望远镜观测了年轻大质量天体的SiO（8-7）和CO（4-3）谱线，研究了它们的激发条件及其在流出流中的丰度。通过非LTE分析，我们发现SiO的激发条件随着发射气体的速度而增加。我们还通过在高速下的SiO和CO积分强度计算了SiO的丰度。在我们的样品中的源，我们发现没有显着的变化的SiO丰度与演化的辐射热光度质量比之间的4和50 $L_\odot/M_\odot$。我们还发现SiO（8-7）的光度随辐射热光度质量比的增加而增加。我们推测，这可能是由于SiO示踪的气体密度增加。我们发现，由SiO观测约束的密度需要使用的冲击模型，其中包括颗粒-颗粒处理。第一次，这样的模型进行了比较，发现是兼容的SiO观测。从这些比较中可以全面推断出冲击前的密度为$10^5\, $ cm $^{-3}$。在我们的样本中的SiO观察到相应的速度色散的对象调用的速度高于25公里秒$^{-1}$的冲击。我们的冲击模型与观测结果的比较表明，溅射的含硅材料（对应于小于10%的总硅丰度）从晶粒地幔发生。
英文摘要：
Molecular outflows are a direct consequence of accretion, and therefore they represent one of the best tracers of accretion processes in the still poorly understood early phases of high-mass star formation. Previous studies suggested that the SiO abundance decreases with the evolution of a massive young stellar object probably because of a decay of jet activity, as witnessed in low-mass star-forming regions. We investigate the SiO excitation conditions and its abundance in outflows from a sample of massive young stellar objects through observations of the SiO(8-7) and CO(4-3) lines with the APEX telescope. Through a non-LTE analysis, we find that the excitation conditions of SiO increase with the velocity of the emitting gas. We also compute the SiO abundance through the SiO and CO integrated intensities at high velocities. For the sources in our sample we find no significant variation of the SiO abundance with evolution for a bolometric luminosity-to-mass ratio of between 4 and 50 $L_\odot/M_\odot$. We also find a weak increase of the SiO(8-7) luminosity with the bolometric luminosity-to-mass ratio. We speculate that this might be explained with an increase of density in the gas traced by SiO. We find that the densities constrained by the SiO observations require the use of shock models that include grain-grain processing. For the first time, such models are compared and found to be compatible with SiO observations. A pre-shock density of $10^5\, $cm$^{-3}$ is globally inferred from these comparisons. Shocks with a velocity higher than 25 km s$^{-1}$ are invoked for the objects in our sample where the SiO is observed with a corresponding velocity dispersion. Our comparison of shock models with observations suggests that sputtering of silicon-bearing material (corresponding to less than 10% of the total silicon abundance) from the grain mantles is occurring.
L1157-B1 is one of the outflow shocked regions along the blue-shifted outflow driven by the Class 0 protostar L1157-mm, and is an ideal laboratory to study the material ejected from the grains in very short timescales, i.e. its chemical composition is representative of the composition of the grains. We imaged $^{28}$SiO, $^{29}$SiO and $^{30}$SiO J = 2-1 emission towards L1157-B1 and B0 with the NOrthern Extended Millimeter Array (NOEMA) interferometer as part of the Seeds of Life in Space (SOLIS) large project. We present here a study of the isotopic fractionation of SiO towards L1157-B1. Fur…
We compare the properties of shocked gas in Sgr B2 with maps obtained from 3D simulations of a collision between two fractal clouds. In agreement with $^{13}$CO(1-0) observations, our simulations show that a cloud-cloud collision produces a region with a highly turbulent density substructure with an average $N_{\rm H2}\gtrsim 5\times10^{22}\,\rm cm^{-2}$. Similarly, our numerical multi-channel shock study shows that colliding clouds are efficient at producing internal shocks with velocities of $5-50\,\rm km\,s^{-1}$ and Mach numbers of $\sim4-40$, which are needed to explain the $\sim 10^{-9}$…
We present SiO J=2-1 maps of the Sgr B2 molecular cloud, which show shocked gas with a turbulent substructure comprising at least three cavities at velocities of [10,40] km s$^{-1}$ and an arc at velocities of [-20,10] km s$^{-1}$. The spatial anti-correlation of shocked gas at low and high velocities, and the presence of bridging features in position-velocity diagrams suggest that these structures formed in a cloud-cloud collision. Some of the known compact HII regions spatially overlap with sites of strong SiO emission at velocities of [40,85] km s$^{-1}$, and are between or along the edges …
In order to search for shocks in the very early stage of star formation, we performed single-point surveys of SiO J=1-0, 2-1 and 3-2 lines and the H$_2$CO $2_{12}-1_{11}$ line toward a sample of 100 high-mass starless clump candidates (SCCs) by using the Korean VLBI Network (KVN) 21-m radio telescopes. The detection rates of the SiO J=1-0, 2-1, 3-2 lines and the H$_2$CO line are $31.0\%$, $31.0\%$, $19.5\%$ and $93.0\%$, respectively. Shocks seem to be common in this stage of massive star formation. The widths of the observed SiO lines (full width at zero power (FWZP)) range from 3.4 to 55.1 k…
In the nearby (D=14 Mpc) AGN-starburst composite galaxy NGC 1068, it has been found that the molecular gas in the Circum-nuclear Disk (CND) is outflowing, which is a manifestation of ongoing AGN feedback. The outflowing gas has a large spread of velocities, which likely drive different shock chemistry signatures at different locations in the CND. We perform a multi-line molecular study using two shock tracers, SiO and HNCO, with the aim to determine the gas properties traced by these two species, and explore the possibility of reconstructing the shock history in the CND. Five SiO transitions a…
To understand the nature of SiO emission, we conducted ACA observations of the SiO (2-1) lines toward 146 massive star-forming regions, as part of the ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions (ATOMS) survey. We detected SiO emission in 128 (87.7$\%$) sources and identified 171 SiO clumps, 105 of which are spatially separated from 3 mm continuum emission. A large amount of the SiO line profiles (60$\%$) are non-Gaussian. The velocity dispersion of the SiO lines ranges from 0.3 to 5.43 km s$^{-1}$. In 63 sources the SiO clumps are associated with H$_\rm{II}$ regions cha…
The Si+SO$_2$ reaction is investigated to verify its impact on the abundances of molecules with astrochemical interest, such as SiS, SiO, SO and others. According to our results Si($^3$P) and SO$_2$ react barrierlessly yielding only the monoxides SO and SiO as products. No favourable pathway has been found leading to other products, and this reaction should not contribute to SiS abundance. Furthermore, it is predicted that SiS is stable in collisions with O$_2$, and that S($^3$P)+SiO$_2$ and O($^3$P)+OSiS will also produce SO+SiO. Using these results and gathering further experimental and comp…
There is evidence that the star formation process is linked to the intricate net of filaments in molecular clouds, which may be also due to gas compression from external triggers. We studied the southern region of the Perseus NGC 1333 molecular cloud, known to be heavily shaped by similar external triggers, to shed light on the process that perturbed the filament where the Class 0 IRAS4 protostars lie. We use new IRAM-NOEMA observations of SiO and CH3OH, both known to trace violent events as shocks, toward IRAS 4A as part of the Large Program Seeds Of Life in Space (SOLIS). We detected three p…
HH 211 is a highly collimated jet with a chain of knots and a wiggle structure on both sides of a young Class 0 protostar. We used two epochs of Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) data to study its inner jet in the CO(J=3-2), SiO(J=8-7), and SO(N_J=8_9-7_8) lines at $\sim$25 AU resolution. With these ALMA and previous 2008 Submillimeter Array (SMA) data, the proper motion of 8 knots within $\sim$250 AU of the central source is found to be $\sim$0.068" per year ($\sim$102 km/s), consistent with previous measurements in the outer jet. At $\sim$4 times higher resolution, the refl…
To study the early phases of massive star formation, we present ALMA observations of SiO(5-4) emission and VLA observations of 6 cm continuum emission towards 32 Infrared Dark Cloud (IRDC) clumps, spatially resolved down to $\lesssim 0.05$ pc. Out of the 32 clumps, we detect SiO emission in 20 clumps, and in 11 of them the SiO emission is relatively strong and likely tracing protostellar outflows. Some SiO outflows are collimated, while others are less ordered. For the six strongest SiO outflows, we estimate basic outflow properties. In our entire sample, where there is SiO emission, we find 1…
SiO: Not the perfect outflow tracer: Outflow studies of the massive star formation region IRAS 19410+2336
目的：先前对年轻大质量恒星形成区IRAS 19410+2336的观测显示出强烈的外流活动，有几个相互作用的外流。我们的目标是通过观察具有高角分辨率的SiO和H $^{13}$ CO $^+$发射来更好地了解该区域的流出活动。已知SiO可追踪冲击气体，这通常与年轻的能量外流有关。利用H $^{13}$ CO $^+$数据，我们打算更好地了解该区域静止气体成分的分布。研究方法：利用Plateau de Bure干涉仪对J=2-1 v=0跃迁的SiO观测和H $^{13}$ CO $^+$ J=1-0的观测，结合IRAM 30 m单碟观测，以获得缺失的短间距信息。我们用早期的CO和H $_2$数据补充了这一新的高分辨率观测。结果：SiO观察不能很好地追踪CO和H $_2$中先前确定的流出。虽然我们确定的区域的高度增加的SiO丰度表示冲击相互作用，几乎没有任何双极结构的数据。该区域的南部显示出强的H $_2$发射，但几乎没有显示出SiO。CO和SiO的数据显示只有弱的相似性，和主要的SiO排放位于该地区的两个主要的尘埃团块之间。结论：大多数SiO排放可能是由于原恒星喷流的高速冲击的结果。然而，这并不能解释所有的排放特征和附加效应;例如，在两个主要区域的界面处的碰撞气流可能在排放的起源中起重要作用。目前的SiO数据表明，几种不同的影响可以影响SiO排放，这使得SiO数据的解释比通常假设的更困…
SiO emission in the filamentary Infrared Dark Cloud G035.39-00.33: An ALMA view
National Astronomical Observatories of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院国家天文台）；Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院上海天文台）；Centro de Astrobiología (CAB), CSIC-INTA（天体生物学中心（CAB），西班牙国家研究委员会-国家航空航天技术研究所）；Institute de Radioastronomie Millimétrique（毫米波射电天文研究所）；European Southern Observatory (ESO)（欧洲南方天文台）；Chalmers University of Technology（查尔姆斯理工大学）；University of Virginia（弗吉尼亚大学）；INAF Osservatorio Astronomico di Arcetri（意大利国家天体物理研究所阿切特里天文台）；Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics（马克斯·普朗克地外物理学研究所）
The observational counterparts of theoretically predicted first hydrostatic cores (FHSC) have been searched for in the interstellar medium for nearly two decades now. Distinguishing them from other types of more evolved but still embedded objects remains a challenge because these objects have a short lifetime, are small, and embedded in a dense cocoon. One possible lead to finding them is the characterization of the outflows that are launched by these objects. We observed the L1451-mm FHSC candidate with the NOEMA interferometer in order to study the emission of several molecules. A nonlocal t…
We have observed the very low-mass Class 0 protostar IRAS 15398-3359 at scales ranging from 50 au to 1800 au, as part of the ALMA Large Program FAUST. We uncover a linear feature, visible in H2CO, SO, and C18O line emission, which extends from the source along a direction almost perpendicular to the known active outflow. Molecular line emission from H2CO, SO, SiO, and CH3OH further reveals an arc-like structure connected to the outer end of the linear feature and separated from the protostar, IRAS 15398-3359, by 1200 au. The arc-like structure is blue-shifted with respect to the systemic veloc…
An ACA map of a molecular cloud interacting with supernova remnant W28
School of Astronomy & Space Science, Nanjing University（南京大学天文与空间科学学院）；Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS（波尔多大学天体物理实验室）；Department of Astronomy, Xiamen University（厦门大学天文学系）；Key Laboratory of Modern Astronomy and Astrophysics, Nanjing University, Ministry of Education（南京大学现代天文与天体物理教育部重点实验室）
The interstellar medium contains dust and gas, in which at high densities and cold conditions molecules can proliferate. Interstellar Complex Organic Molecules (iCOMs) are C-bearing species that contain at least six atoms. As they are detected in young stellar objects, iCOMs are expected to inhabit the early stages of the star formation evolution. In this study, we try to determine which iCOMs are present in the outflow component of massive protostars. To do this, we analyzed the morphological extension of blue- and red-shifted iCOMs emission in a sample of eleven massive protostars employing …
Star-forming molecular clouds are characterised by the ubiquity of intertwined filaments. The filaments have been observed in both high- and low-mass star-forming regions, and are thought to split into collections of sonic fibres. The locations where filaments converge are termed hubs, and these are associated with the young stellar clusters. However, the observations of filamentary structures within hubs at distances require a high angular resolution that limits the number of such studies conducted so far. The integral shaped filament of the Orion A molecular cloud is noted for harbouring sev…
We have selected 43 southern massive star-forming regions to study the spatial distribution of HNCO 4$_{04}$-3$_{03}$, SiO 2-1 and HC$_{3}$N 10-9 line emission and to investigate their spatial association with the dust emission. The morphology of HNCO 4$_{04}$-3$_{03}$ and HC$_{3}$N 10-9 agrees well with the dust emission. HC$_{3}$N 10-9 tends to originate from more compact regions than HNCO 4$_{04}$-3$_{03}$ and SiO 2-1. We divided our sources into three groups: those in the Central Molecular Zone (CMZ), those associated with bubbles (Bubble), and the remaining sources, which are termed 'norm…
We report Very Large Array (VLA) observations in the Q-band toward 10 ionized jet candidates to search for SiO emission, a well-known shocked gas tracer. We detected 7 mm continuum counterparts toward 90% of the jet candidates. In most cases, the jet candidate is located toward the center of the 7 mm core, and the high masses ($\approx 100\,M_\odot$) and densities ($\approx 10^7\, \text{cm}^{-3}$) of the cores suggest that the central objects are very young high-mass protostars. We detected SiO $J=1-0$ emission associated with 6 target sources. In all cases, the morphology and spectrum of the …
Supernova remnants (SNRs) contribute to regulate the star formation efficiency and evolution of galaxies. As they expand into the interstellar medium (ISM), they transfer vast amounts of energy and momentum that displace, compress and heat the surrounding material. Despite the extensive work in galaxy evolution models, it remains to be observationally validated to what extent the molecular ISM is affected by the interaction with SNRs. We use the first results of the ESO-ARO Public Spectroscopic Survey SHREC, to investigate the shock interaction between the SNR IC443 and the nearby molecular cl…
The latest evolutionary phases of low- and intermediate mass stars are characterized by complex physical processes like turbulence, convection, stellar pulsations, magnetic fields, condensation of solid particles, and the formation of massive outflows that inject freshly produced heavy elements and dust particles into the interstellar medium. We use the Northern Extended Millimeter Array (NOEMA) to obtain spatially and spectrally resolved observations of the semi-regular Asymptotic Giant Branch star RS Cancri to shed light on the morpho-kinematic structure of its inner, wind forming environmen…
We present high resolution observations of CS(J=1-0), H13CO+ (J=1-0), and SiO(v=0:J=1-0) lines, together with the 49GHz and 86GHz continuum emissions, toward W49N carried out with Nobeyama Millimeter Array. We identified 11 CS, 8 H13CO+, and 6 SiO clumps with radii of 0.1-0.5pc. The CS and H13CO+ clumps are mainly divided into two velocity components, one at 4kms-1 and the other at 12kms-1, while the SiO clumps have velocities between the two components. The SiO emission is distributed toward the UCHII ring, where the 4kms-1 component clumps of CS and H13CO+ also exist. The 12kms-1 component c…
