Extended reality (XR) technologies-encompassing virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) are transforming cognitive assessment and training by offering immersive, interactive environments that simulate real-world tasks. XR enhances ecological validity while enabling real-time, multimodal data collection through tools such as galvanic skin response (GSR), electroencephalography (EEG), eye tracking (ET), hand tracking, and body tracking. This allows for a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive and emotional processes, as well as adaptive, personalized interventions for users. Despite these advancements, current XR applications often underutilize the full potential of multimodal integration, relying primarily on visual and auditory inputs. Challenges such as cybersickness, usability concerns, and accessibility barriers further limit the widespread adoption of XR tools in cognitive science and clinical practice. This review examines XR-based cognitive assessment and training, focusing on its advantages over traditional methods, including ecological validity, engagement, and adaptability. It also explores unresolved challenges such as system usability, cost, and the need for multimodal feedback integration. The review concludes by identifying opportunities for optimizing XR tools to improve cognitive evaluation and rehabilitation outcomes, particularly for diverse populations, including older adults and individuals with cognitive impairments.
Immersive virtual reality methods in cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology: Meeting the criteria of the National Academy of Neuropsychology and American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology
Ageing, Digital Literacy, and Interaction Modality in Immer-sive Virtual Reality: Psychomotor Performance, Cognitive Flexibility, and Their Processing-Speed Association
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens（雅典国立卡波迪斯特里阿斯大学）；The American College of Greece（希腊美国学院）；University of Edinburgh（爱丁堡大学）
Guidelines for the Development of Immersive Virtual Reality Software for Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology: The Development of Virtual Reality Everyday Assessment Lab (VR-EAL)
Augmented Reality Indoor Wayfinding in Hospital Environments An Empirical Study on Navigation Efficiency, User Experience, and Cognitive Load
University of Michigan School of Information（密歇根大学信息学院）；University of Michigan School of Nursing（密歇根大学护理学院）；University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability（密歇根大学环境可持续发展学院）；University of Michigan Medical School（密歇根大学医学院）
Game-Based versus Training-Based Virtual Reality for Cognitive Rehabilitation in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia: A Systematization of Design Paradigms, Outcomes, and Evaluation Rigor
An ecologically valid examination of event-based and time-based prospective memory using immersive virtual reality: the influence of attention, memory, and executive function processes on real-world prospective memory
Explainability and AI Confidence in Clinical Decision Support Systems: Effects on Trust, Diagnostic Performance, and Cognitive Load in Breast Cancer Care
Impact of Augmented reality system on elementary school ESL learners in country side of china: Motivations, achievements, behaviors and cognitive attainment
Examination of Cybersickness in Virtual Reality: The Role of Individual Differences, Effects on Cognitive Functions & Motor Skills, and Intensity Differences During and After Immersion
CogAdapt: Adapting Clinical ECG Foundation Models for Wearable Cognitive Load Assessment
Department of Computer Science, College of AI, Cyber and Computing, The University of Texas at San Antonio（计算机科学系，人工智能、网络与计算学院，德克萨斯大学圣安东尼奥分校）；Department of Educational Psychology, College of Education and Human Development, The University of Texas at San Antonio（教育心理学系，教育与人类发展学院，德克萨斯大学圣安东尼奥分校）
Leveraging fNIRS to Evaluate Workload for Adaptive Training in Virtual Reality
University of Colorado Boulder（科罗拉多大学博尔德分校）；Colorado State University（科罗拉多州立大学）；Montana State University（蒙大拿州立大学）；University of Northern Colorado（北科罗拉多大学）
Reframing Human-Robot Interaction Through Extended Reality: Unlocking Safer, Smarter, and More Empathic Interactions with Virtual Robots and Foundation Models
Division of Robotics, Perception, and Learning, KTH Royal Institute of Technology（KTH皇家理工学院机器人、感知与学习部）；Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen（卑尔根大学临床医学系）
