The SPHERE infrared survey for exoplanets (SHINE). III. The demographics of young giant exoplanets below 300 au with SPHERE
A. Vigan, C. Fontanive, M. Meyer, B. Biller, M. Bonavita, M. Feldt, S. Desidera, G. -D. Marleau, A. Emsenhuber, R. Galicher, K. Rice, D. Forgan, C. Mordasini, R… 展开作者
A. Vigan, C. Fontanive, M. Meyer, B. Biller, M. Bonavita, M. Feldt, S. Desidera, G. -D. Marleau, A. Emsenhuber, R. Galicher, K. Rice, D. Forgan, C. Mordasini, R. Gratton, H. Le Coroller, A. -L. Maire, F. Cantalloube, G. Chauvin, A. Cheetham, J. Hagelberg, A. -M. Lagrange, M. Langlois, M. Bonnefoy, J. -L. Beuzit, A. Boccaletti, V. D'Orazi, P. Delorme, C. Dominik, Th. Henning, M. Janson, E. Lagadec, C. Lazzoni, R. Ligi, F. Menard, D. Mesa, S. Messina, C. Moutou, A. Müller, C. Perrot, M. Samland, H. M. Schmid, T. Schmidt, E. Sissa, M. Turatto, S. Udry, A. Zurlo, L. Abe, J. Antichi, R. Asensio-Torres, A. Baruffolo, P. Baudoz, J. Baudrand, A. Bazzon, P. Blanchard, A. J. Bohn, S. Brown Sevilla, M. Carbillet, M. Carle, E. Cascone, J. Charton, R. Claudi, A. Costille, V. De Caprio, A. Delboulbé, K. Dohlen, N. Engler, D. Fantinel, P. Feautrier, T. Fusco, P. Gigan, J. H. Girard, E. Giro, D. Gisler, L. Gluck, C. Gry, N. Hubin, E. Hugot, M. Jaquet, M. Kasper, D. Le Mignant, M. Llored, F. Madec, Y. Magnard, P. Martinez, D. Maurel, O. Möller-Nilsson, D. Mouillet, T. Moulin, A. Origné, A. Pavlov, D. Perret, C. Petit, J. Pragt, P. Puget, P. Rabou, J. Ramos, E. L. Rickman, F. Rigal, S. Rochat, R. Roelfsema, G. Rousset, A. Roux, B. Salasnich, J. -F. Sauvage, A. Sevin, C. Soenke, E. Stadler, M. Suarez, Z. Wahhaj, L. Weber, F. Wildi
备注：
24 pages, 14 figures, 3 tables. Accepted for publication in A&A
The SHINE project is a 500-star survey performed with SPHERE on the VLT for the purpose of directly detecting new substellar companions and understanding their formation and early evolution. Here we present an initial statistical analysis for a subsample of 150 stars that are representative of the full SHINE sample. Our goal is to constrain the frequency of substellar companions with masses between 1 and 75 MJup and semimajor axes between 5 and 300 au. We adopt detection limits as a function of angular separation from the survey data for all stars converted into mass and projected orbital separation using the BEX-COND-hot evolutionary tracks and known distance to each system. Based on the results obtained for each star and on the 13 detections in the sample, we use a MCMC tool to compare our observations to two different types of models. The first is a parametric model based on observational constraints, and the second type are numerical models that combine advanced core accretion and gravitational instability planet population synthesis. Using the parametric model, we show that the frequencies of systems with at least one substellar companion are $23.0_{-9.7}^{+13.5}\%$, $5.8_{-2.8}^{+4.7}\%$, and $12.6_{-7.1}^{+12.9}\%$ for BA, FGK, and M stars, respectively. We also demonstrate that a planet-like formation pathway probably dominates the mass range from 1-75 MJup for companions around BA stars, while for M dwarfs, brown dwarf binaries dominate detections. In contrast, a combination of binary star-like and planet-like formation is required to best fit the observations for FGK stars. Using our population model and restricting our sample to FGK stars, we derive a frequency of $5.7_{-2.8}^{+3.8}\%$, consistent with predictions from the parametric model. More generally, the frequency values that we derive are in excellent agreement with values obtained in previous studies.
In the broadest sense, the primary goal of exoplanet demographic surveys is to determine the frequency and distribution of planets as a function of as many of the physical parameters that may influence planet formation and evolution as possible, over as broad of a range of these parameters as possible. Empirically-determined exoplanet demographics provide the ground truth that all planet formation and evolution theories must reproduce. By comparing these planet distributions to the predictions of planet formation theories, we can begin to both test and refine these theories. In this chapter, w…
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile（智利天主教 Pontificia 大学）；Universidad de Alcalá（阿尔卡拉大学）；Centro de Astrobiología (CAB) CSIC-INTA（天体生物学中心（CAB）西班牙高等科学研究理事会-国家航空航天技术研究所）；Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Center, Polish Academy of Sciences（波兰科学院尼古拉·哥白尼天文台）
Large surveys with new-generation high-contrast imaging instruments are needed to derive the frequency and properties of exoplanet populations with separations from $\sim$5 to 300 AU. A careful assessment of the stellar properties is crucial for a proper understanding of when, where, and how frequently planets form, and how they evolve. The sensitivity of detection limits to stellar age makes this a key parameter for direct imaging surveys. We describe the SpHere INfrared survey for Exoplanets (SHINE), the largest direct imaging planet-search campaign initiated at the VLT in 2015 in the contex…
Over the past decades, direct imaging has confirmed the existence of substellar companions (exoplanets or brown dwarfs) on wide orbits (>10 au) from their host stars. To understand their formation and evolution mechanisms, we have initiated in 2015 the SPHERE infrared survey for exoplanets (SHINE), a systematic direct imaging survey of young, nearby stars to explore their demographics.} {We aim to detect and characterize the population of giant planets and brown dwarfs beyond the snow line around young, nearby stars. Combined with the survey completeness, our observations offer the opportunity…
I begin this review by first defining what is meant by exoplanet demographics, and then motivating why we would like as broad a picture of exoplanet demographics as possible. I then outline the methodology and pitfalls to measuring exoplanet demographics in practice. I next review the methods of detecting exoplanets, focusing on the ability of these methods to detect wide separation planets. For the purposes of this review, I define wide separation as separations beyond the 'snow line' of the protoplanetary disk, which is at roughly $\sim3$ au for a sunlike star. I note that this definition is…
Exoplanet atmospheres and demographics in the 2040s
European Southern Observatory（欧洲南方天文台）；Observatoire de Paris（巴黎天文台）；Leiden Observatory（莱顿天文台）；Max-Planck-Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics（马普地外物理研究所）；University of Exeter（埃克塞特大学）
We present optimal survey strategies for the upcoming NIX imager, part of the ERIS instrument to be installed on the Very Large Telescope (VLT). We will use a custom 2.2 micron K-peak filter to optimise the efficiency of a future large-scale direct imaging survey, aiming to detect brown dwarfs and giant planets around nearby stars. We use the results of previous large scale imaging surveys (primarily SPHERE SHINE and Gemini GPIES) to inform our choice of targets, as well as improved planet population distributions. We present four possible approaches to optimise survey target lists for the hig…
The SPHERE infrared survey for exoplanets (SHINE) V. Full sample characterization
INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova（意大利国家天体物理研究所帕多瓦天文台）；University of Exeter（埃克塞特大学）；Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie（马克斯·普朗克天文学研究所）；Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange（蔚蓝海岸大学、蔚蓝海岸天文台、法国国家科学研究中心拉格朗日实验室）；Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité, CY Cergy Paris Université, CNRS（巴黎天文台、巴黎文理研究大学、索邦大学、巴黎西岱大学、CY塞尔吉巴黎大学、法国国家科学研究中心）；Università di Roma Tor Vergata（罗马第二大学）；The University of Texas at Austin（德克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校）；Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh（爱丁堡大学天文学研究所）；Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, LAM（艾克斯-马赛大学、法国国家科学研究中心、法国国家空间研究中心拉格朗日天体物理学实验室）；INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania（意大利国家天体物理研究所卡塔尼亚天文台）
Gaps in protoplanetary disks have long been hailed as signposts of planet formation. However, a direct link between exoplanets and disks remains hard to identify. We present a large sample study of ALMA disk surveys of nearby star-forming regions to disentangle this connection. All disks are classified as either structured (transition, ring, extended) or non-structured (compact) disks. Although low-resolution observations may not identify large scale substructure, we assume that an extended disk must contain substructure from a dust evolution argument. A comparison across ages reveals that str…
The Kepler, K2 and TESS transit surveys are revolutionizing our understanding of planets orbiting close to their host stars and our understanding of exoplanet systems in general, but there remains a gap in our understanding of wide-orbit planets. This gap in our understanding must be filled if we are to understand planet formation and how it affects exoplanet habitability. We summarize current and planned exoplanet detection programs using a variety of methods: microlensing (including WFIRST), radial velocities, Gaia astrometry, and direct imaging. Finally, we discuss the prospects for joint a…
New substellar candidates identified through deep learning in the F150 sample of the large-scale SHINE direct imaging survey
Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva（日内瓦天文台，日内瓦大学）；STAR Institute, Université de Liège（STAR研究所，列日大学）；Montefiore Institute, Université de Liège（蒙特菲奥雷研究所，列日大学）；IPAG, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS（IPAG，格勒诺布尔阿尔卑斯大学，法国国家科学研究中心）
Probing the origins. III. Exoplanet demographics across Galactic birth radii
Universidad de Alcalá（阿尔卡拉大学）；Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile（智利天主教 Pontificia 大学）；Instituto de Astrofísica, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile（智利天主教 Pontificia 大学天体物理研究所）；Centro de Astrobiología (CAB) CSIC-INTA（CSIC-INTA 天体生物学中心）；European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC)（欧洲空间局（ESA）欧洲空间天文中心）；Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomical Center, Polish Academy of Sciences（波兰科学院尼古拉·哥白尼天文中心）
Motivated by the order-of-magnitude difference in the frequency of giant planets orbiting M dwarfs inferred by microlensing and radial velocity (RV) surveys, we present a method for comparing the statistical constraints on exoplanet demographics inferred from these methods. We first derive the mapping from the observable parameters of a microlensing-detected planet to those of an analogous planet orbiting an RV-monitored star. Using this mapping, we predict the distribution of RV observables for the planet population inferred from microlensing surveys, taking care to adopt reasonable priors fo…
Although the sample of exoplanets in binaries has been greatly expanded, the sample heterogeneity and observational bias are obstacles toward a clear figure of exoplanet demographics in the binary environment. To overcome the obstacles, we conduct a statistical study that focuses on S-type planetary systems detected by the Radial Velocity method. We try to account for observational biases by estimating, from available RV data, planet detection efficiencies for each individual system. Our main results are as follows: (1) Single (multiple) planetary systems are mostly found in close (wide) binar…
We present the first study to synthesize results from five different exoplanet surveys using three independent detection methods: microlensing, radial velocity, and direct imaging. The constraints derived herein represent the most comprehensive picture of the demographics of large-separation (>~ 2 AU) planets orbiting the most common stars in our Galaxy that has been constructed to date. We assume a simple, joint power-law planet distribution function of the form d^2N_{pl}/[dlog(m_p)dlog(a)] = A(m_p/M_{Sat})^{alpha}(a/2.5 AU)^{beta} with an outer cutoff radius of the separation distribution fu…
Technique-agnostic exoplanet demography for the Roman era -- I. Testing a demography retrieval framework using simulated Kepler-like transit datasets
Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, University of Manchester（曼彻斯特大学天体物理学中心）；School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University of Canterbury（坎特伯雷大学物理与化学科学学院）；Space Telescope Science Institute（太空望远镜科学研究所）；Université Marie et Louis Pasteur, CNRS, Institut UTINAM UMR 6213（玛丽和路易斯·巴斯德大学，法国国家科学研究中心，UTINAM研究所）；IPAC, Caltech（加州理工学院/IPAC）；Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland（马里兰大学天文学系）；NASA Goddard Space Flight Center（美国宇航局戈达德太空飞行中心）；Dipartimento di Fisica “E.R. Caianiello”, Università di Salerno（萨莱诺大学“E.R. Caianiello”物理系）
Rescuing Kepler's False Positives: A Possible Habitable Zone Exoplanet in the Triple Star System KOI-1623
Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawai‘i（夏威夷大学天体物理研究所）；Department of Astronomy, University of Texas at Austin（德克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校天文学系）；Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory（爱丁堡大学天体物理研究所皇家天文台）；Department of Astronomy, California Institute of Technology（加州理工学院天文学系）；University of Notre Dame, Department of Physics and Astronomy（圣母院大学物理与天文学系）
Gaia Exoplanet Orbits, Demographics, and Evolution Survey (GEODES): Characteristics of Three Long-Period Companions Accelerating their Host Stars
University of California, Santa Barbara（加州大学圣塔芭芭拉分校）；University of California Los Angeles（加州大学洛杉矶分校）；University of California, Santa Cruz（加州大学圣克鲁兹分校）；Princeton University（普林斯顿大学）
We present the multiple stellar systems observed within the SpHere INfrared survey for Exoplanet (SHINE). SHINE searched for substellar companions to young stars using high contrast imaging. Although stars with known stellar companions within SPHERE field of view (<5.5 arcsec) were removed from the original target list, we detected additional stellar companions to 78 of the 463 SHINE targets observed so far. 27% of the systems have three or more components. Given the heterogeneity of the sample in terms of observing conditions and strategy, tailored routines were used for data reduction and an…
Studies of exoplanet demographics require large samples and precise constraints on exoplanet host stars. Using the homogeneous Kepler stellar properties derived using Gaia Data Release 2 by Berger et al. (2020), we re-compute Kepler planet radii and incident fluxes and investigate their distributions with stellar mass and age. We measure the stellar mass dependence of the planet radius valley to be $d \log R_{\mathrm{p}}$/$d \log M_\star = 0.26^{+0.21}_{-0.16}$, consistent with the slope predicted by a planet mass dependence on stellar mass ($0.24-0.35$) and core-powered mass-loss (0.33). We a…
In contrast to radial velocity surveys, results from microlensing surveys indicate that giant planets with masses greater than the critical mass for core accretion ($\sim 0.1~M_{\rm Jup}$) are relatively common around low-mass stars. Using the methodology developed in the first paper, we predict the sensitivity of M-dwarf radial velocity (RV) surveys to analogs of the population of planets inferred by microlensing. We find that RV surveys should detect a handful of super-Jovian ($>M_{\rm Jup}$) planets at the longest periods being probed. These planets are indeed found by RV surveys, implying …
Diffraction fundamentally limits our ability to image and characterize exoplanets. Current and planned coronagraphic searches for exoplanets are making incredible strides but are fundamentally limited by the inner working angle of a few lambda/D. Some crucial topics, such as demographics of exoplanets within the first 50 Myr and the infrared characterization of terrestrial planets, are beyond the reach of the single aperture angular resolution for the foreseeable future. Interferometry offers some advantages in exoplanet detection and characterization and we explore in this white paper some of…
Our understanding of the properties and demographics of exoplanets critically relies on our ability to determine fundamental properties of their host stars. The advent of Gaia and large spectroscopic surveys has now made it in principle possible to infer properties of individual stars, including most exoplanet hosts, to very high precision. However, we show that in practice, such analyses are limited both by uncertainties in the fundamental scale, and by uncertainties in our models of stellar evolution, even for stars similar to the Sun. For example, we show that current uncertainties on measu…
We present a statistical analysis of the first 300 stars observed by the Gemini Planet Imager Exoplanet Survey (GPIES). This subsample includes six detected planets and three brown dwarfs; from these detections and our contrast curves we infer the underlying distributions of substellar companions with respect to their mass, semi-major axis, and host stellar mass. We uncover a strong correlation between planet occurrence rate and host star mass, with stars M $>$ 1.5 $M_\odot$ more likely to host planets with masses between 2-13 M$_{\rm Jup}$ and semi-major axes of 3-100 au at 99.92% confidence.…
A Catalog of Homogeneously Derived Stellar Parameters for Spectroscopic Survey Stars
Institute of Astronomy and National Astronomical Observatory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences（保加利亚科学院天文学研究所和国立天文台）；Weizmann Institute of Science（魏茨曼科学研究所）；Ariel University（阿里埃勒大学）
Atmospheric escape is key to explaining the long-term evolution of planets in our Solar System and beyond, and in the interpretation of atmospheric measurements. Hydrodynamic escape is generally thought to be driven by the flux of extreme ultraviolet photons that the planet receives from its host star. Here, we show that the escape from planets orbiting hot stars proceeds through a different yet complementary process: drawing its energy from the intense near ultraviolet emission of the star that is deposited within an optically thin, high-altitude atmospheric layer of hydrogen excited into the…
We present new 890 $μm$ continuum ALMA observations of 5 brown dwarfs (BDs) with infrared excess in Lupus I and III -- which, in combination with 4 BDs previously observed, allowed us to study the mm properties of the full known BD disk population of one star-forming region. Emission is detected in 5 out of the 9 BD disks. Dust disk mass, brightness profiles and characteristic sizes of the BD population are inferred from continuum flux and modeling of the observations. Only one source is marginally resolved, allowing for the determination of its disk characteristic size. We conduct a demograph…
The masses and radii of exoplanets are fundamental quantities needed for their characterisation. Studying the different populations of exoplanets is important for understanding the demographics of the different planetary types, which can then be linked to planetary formation and evolution. We present an updated exoplanet catalog based on reliable, robust and as much as possible accurate mass and radius measurements of transiting planets up to 120 $M_{\oplus}$. The resulting mass-radius (M-R) diagram shows two distinct populations, corresponding to rocky and volatile-rich exoplanets which overl…
We provide the first full K2 transiting exoplanet sample, using photometry from Campaigns 1-8 and 10-18, derived through an entirely automated procedure. This homogeneous planet candidate catalog is a crucial to perform a robust demographic analysis of transiting exoplanets with K2. We identify 747 unique planet candidates and 57 multi-planet systems. Of these candidates, 366 have not been previously identified, including one resonant multi-planet system and one system with two short-period gas giants. By automating the construction of this list, measurements of sample biases (completeness and…
The study of extrasolar planets has rapidly expanded to encompass the search for new planets, measurements of sizes and masses, models of planetary interiors, planetary demographics and occurrence frequencies, the characterization of planetary orbits and dynamics, and studies of these worlds' complex atmospheres. Our insights into exoplanets dramatically advance whenever improved tools and techniques become available, and surely the largest tools now being planned are the optical/infrared Extremely Large Telescopes (ELTs). Two themes summarize the advantages of atmospheric studies with the ELT…
We present an extensive search in the literature and Gaia DR2 for visual co-moving binary companions to stars hosting exoplanets and brown dwarfs within 200 pc. We found 218 planet hosts out of 938 to be part of multiple-star systems, with 10 newly discovered binaries and 2 new tertiary stellar components. This represents an overall raw multiplicity rate of 23.2$\pm$1.6% for hosts to exoplanets across all spectral types, with multi-planet systems found to have a lower duplicity frequency at the 2.2$σ$ level. We found that more massive hosts are more often in binary configurations, and that pla…
The first directly imaged exoplanets indicated that wide-orbit giant planets could be more common around A-type stars. However, the relatively small number of nearby A-stars has limited the precision of exoplanet demographics studies to $\gtrsim$10%. We aim to constrain the frequency of wide-orbit giant planets around A-stars using the VLT/SPHERE extreme adaptive optics system, which enables targeting $\gtrsim$100 A-stars between 100$-$200 pc. We present the results of a survey of 84 A-stars within the nearby $\sim$5$-$17 Myr-old Sco OB2 association. The survey detected three companions$-$one …
We present design considerations for the Transiting Exosatellites, Moons, and Planets in Orion (TEMPO) Survey with the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope. This proposed 30-day survey is designed to detect a population of transiting extrasolar satellites, moons, and planets in the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC). The young (1-3 Myr), densely-populated ONC harbors about a thousand bright brown dwarfs (BDs) and free-floating planetary-mass objects (FFPs). TEMPO offers sufficient photometric precision to monitor FFPs with ${\rm M}\geq1{\rm M}_{\rm J}$ for transiting satellites. The survey is also capabl…
e Eridani, the fifth-closest Sun-like star, hosts at least three planets and could possibly harbor more. However, the veracity of the planet candidates in the system and its full planetary architecture remain unknown. Here we analyze the planetary architecture of e Eridani via DYNAMITE, a method providing an integrative assessment of the system architecture (and possibly yet-undetected planets) by combining statistical, exoplanet-population level knowledge with incomplete but specific information available on the system. DYNAMITE predicts the most likely location of an additional planet in the…
