The human heart is a complex system exhibiting stochastic nature, as reflected in electrocardiogram (ECG) signals. ECG signal is a weak, non-stationary, and nonlinear signal, which indicates the health of a heart in terms of temporal variations of electromagnetic pulses from the heart. Abnormal fluctuations in ECG signal invokes the possibility of various cardiovascular disorders, which is diagnosed through intuitive analysis of the ECG reports by the medical practitioners. This could be made fast, accurate, and simple by imposing advanced nonlinear tools on the recorded ECG signals. In this paper, a well-known nonlinear technique, i.e., Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method is adopted to extract the hidden information in the recorded ECG signal. Here, we try to explore the human heart as a dynamic model and perform EMD on ECG reports distinguishing arrhythmia from normal data obtained from the widely used MIT-BIH database. EMD essentially involves the decomposition of the signal into a finite number of Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs), keeping its original properties unaltered. For analysis, we use the powerful Savitzky-Golay (SG) filter for removing non-stationary noises from the ECG signals. The popular nonlinear parameter Hurst Exponent (H) is estimated for every IMF by R/S technique. We identified a distinct margin of the H of 1st IMFs in between the normal and the arrhythmia affected patients. Our model confirms with 94.92% certainty the chances of occurrence of arrhythmia disease in patients by diagnosing ECG signals without performing other expensive and time-consuming techniques such as Holter test, echocardiogram, and stress test.
Electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the non-invasive and low-risk methods to monitor the condition of the human heart. Any abnormal pattern(s) in the ECG signal is an indicative measure of malfunctioning of the heart, termed as arrhythmia. Due to the lack of human expertise and high probability to misdiagnose, computer-aided diagnosis and analysis are preferred. In this work, we perform arrhythmia detection with an optimized neural network having piecewise linear approximation based activation function to alleviate the complex computations in the traditional activation functions. Further, we pro…
The heart is one of the most vital organs in the human body. It supplies blood and nutrients in other parts of the body. Therefore, maintaining a healthy heart is essential. As a heart disorder, arrhythmia is a condition in which the heart's pumping mechanism becomes aberrant. The Electrocardiogram is used to analyze the arrhythmia problem from the ECG signals because of its fewer difficulties and cheapness. The heart peaks shown in the ECG graph are used to detect heart diseases, and the R peak is used to analyze arrhythmia disease. Arrhythmia is grouped into two groups - Tachycardia and Brad…
University of Isfahan（伊斯法罕大学）；Amirkabir University of Technology（阿米尔卡比尔理工大学）；New Jersey Institute of Technology（新泽西理工学院）；Rutgers University（罗格斯大学）
Electrocardiogram (ECG) is the most frequent and routine diagnostic tool used for monitoring heart electrical signals and evaluating its functionality. The human heart can suffer from a variety of diseases, including cardiac arrhythmias. Arrhythmia is an irregular heart rhythm that in severe cases can lead to heart stroke and can be diagnosed via ECG recordings. Since early detection of cardiac arrhythmias is of great importance, computerized and automated classification and identification of these abnormal heart signals have received much attention for the past decades. Methods: This paper in…
Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology (CSEM)（瑞士电子与微技术中心）
While most heart arrhythmias are not immediately harmful, they can lead to severe complications. In particular, atrial fibrillation, the most common arrhythmia, is characterized by fast and irregular heart beats and increases the risk of suffering a stroke. To detect such abnormal heart conditions, we propose a system composed of two main parts: a smart vest with two cooperative sensors to collect ECG data and a neural network architecture to classify heart rhythms. The smart vest uses two dry bi-electrodes to record a single lead ECG signal. The biopotential signal is then streamed via a gate…
University of Nevada, Reno（内华达大学里诺分校）；Fudan University（复旦大学）
Automating arrhythmia detection from ECG requires a robust and trusted system that retains high accuracy under electrical disturbances. Many machine learning approaches have reached human-level performance in classifying arrhythmia from ECGs. However, these architectures are vulnerable to adversarial attacks, which can misclassify ECG signals by decreasing the model's accuracy. Adversarial attacks are small crafted perturbations injected in the original data which manifest the out-of-distribution shifts in signal to misclassify the correct class. Thus, security concerns arise for false hospita…
University of New South Wales（新南威尔士大学）；Harvard University（哈佛大学）
Electrocardiography (ECG) signal is a highly applied measurement for individual heart condition, and much effort have been endeavored towards automatic heart arrhythmia diagnosis based on machine learning. However, traditional machine learning models require large investment of time and effort for raw data preprocessing and feature extraction, as well as challenged by poor classification performance. Here, we propose a novel deep learning model, named Attention-Based Convolutional Neural Networks (ABCNN) that taking advantage of CNN and multi-head attention, to directly work on the raw ECG sig…
Healthcare Technology and Innovation Center (HTIC), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT-M)（印度理工学院马德拉斯分校医疗技术与创新中心）；Indian Institute of Technology, Madras (IITM)（印度理工学院马德拉斯分校）
Cardiac arrhythmia is a prevalent and significant cause of morbidity and mortality among cardiac ailments. Early diagnosis is crucial in providing intervention for patients suffering from cardiac arrhythmia. Traditionally, diagnosis is performed by examination of the Electrocardiogram (ECG) by a cardiologist. This method of diagnosis is hampered by the lack of accessibility to expert cardiologists. For quite some time, signal processing methods had been used to automate arrhythmia diagnosis. However, these traditional methods require expert knowledge and are unable to model a wide range of arr…
School of Information Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学信息科学技术学院）；Department of Electrocardiogram, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China (Anhui Provincial Hospital)（中国科学技术大学附属第一医院（安徽省立医院）心电图科）
Automatic arrhythmia detection using 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) signal plays a critical role in early prevention and diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. In the previous studies on automatic arrhythmia detection, most methods concatenated 12 leads of ECG into a matrix, and then input the matrix to a variety of feature extractors or deep neural networks for extracting useful information. Under such frameworks, these methods had the ability to extract comprehensive features (known as integrity) of 12-lead ECG since the information of each lead interacts with each other during training. How…
Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology (CSEM)（瑞士电子与微技术中心）
Except for a few specific types, cardiac arrhythmias are not immediately life-threatening. However, if not treated appropriately, they can cause serious complications. In particular, atrial fibrillation, which is characterized by fast and irregular heart beats, increases the risk of stroke. We propose three neural network architectures to detect abnormal rhythms from single-lead ECG signals. These architectures combine convolutional layers to extract high-level features pertinent for arrhythmia detection from sliding windows and recurrent layers to aggregate these features over signals of vary…
University of Engineering and Technology Taxila（塔克西拉工程技术大学）；University of Central Florida（中佛罗里达大学）；Hankuk University of Foreign Studies（韩国外国语大学）；Xiamen University Malaysia（厦门大学马来西亚分校）
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the most extensively employed signals used in the diagnosis and prediction of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The ECG signals can capture the heart's rhythmic irregularities, commonly known as arrhythmias. A careful study of ECG signals is crucial for precise diagnoses of patients' acute and chronic heart conditions. In this study, we propose a two-dimensional (2-D) convolutional neural network (CNN) model for the classification of ECG signals into eight classes; namely, normal beat, premature ventricular contraction beat, paced beat, right bundle branch b…
University of Texas at San Antonio（德克萨斯大学圣安东尼奥分校）；Clemson University（克莱姆森大学）
ECG databases are usually highly imbalanced due to the abundance of Normal ECG and scarcity of abnormal cases. As such, deep learning classifiers trained on imbalanced datasets usually perform poorly, especially on minor classes. One solution is to generate realistic synthetic ECG signals using Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) to augment imbalanced datasets. In this study, we combined conditional GAN with WGAN-GP and developed AC-WGAN-GP in 1D form for the first time to be applied on MIT-BIH Arrhythmia dataset. We investigated the impact of data augmentation on arrhythmia classification. …
Electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is a common and powerful tool to study heart function and diagnose several abnormal arrhythmias. While there have been remarkable improvements in cardiac arrhythmia classification methods, they still cannot offer acceptable performance in detecting different heart conditions, especially when dealing with imbalanced datasets. In this paper, we propose a solution to address this limitation of current classification approaches by developing an automatic heartbeat classification method using deep convolutional neural networks and sequence to sequence models. We evalu…
ECGadv: Generating Adversarial Electrocardiogram to Misguide Arrhythmia Classification System
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）；Southern University of Science and Technology, Peng Cheng Laboratory（南方科技大学鹏城实验室）；Huazhong University of Science and Technology（华中科技大学）
An electrocardiogram (ECG) feature extraction system has been developed and evaluated using Virtex-6 FPGA kit which belongs to Xilinx Ltd. In time domain, Pan-Tompkins algorithm is used for QRS detection and it is followed by a feature extractor block to extract ECG features. This whole system can be used to detect cardiac arrhythmia. The completed algorithm was implemented on Virtex-6(XC6VLX240-T) device and tested using hardware co-simulation in Modelsim and simulink environment. The software generated ECG signals are obtained from MIT-BIH arrhythmia Database [1]. The memory and time complex…
Wearable electrocardiograph (ECG) recording and processing systems have been developed to detect cardiac arrhythmia to help prevent heart attacks. Conventional wearable systems, however, suffer from high energy consumption at both circuit and system levels. To overcome the design challenges, this paper proposes an event-driven compressive ECG recording and neuromorphic processing system for cardiac arrhythmia detection. The proposed system achieves low power consumption and high arrhythmia detection accuracy via system level co-design with spike-based information representation. Event-driven l…
École de technologie supérieure (ÉTS), Université du Québec（魁北克大学高等技术学院）
Idiopathic ventricular arrhythmia (IVAs) is extra abnormal heartbeats disturbing the regular heart rhythm that can become fatal if left untreated. Cardiac catheter ablation is the standard approach to treat IVAs, however, a crucial prerequisite for the ablation is the localization of IVAs' origin. The current IVA localization techniques are invasive, rely on expert interpretation, or are inaccurate. In this study, we developed a new deep-learning algorithm that can automatically identify the origin of IVAs from ECG signals without the need for expert manual analysis. Our developed deep learnin…
ArrhythmiaVision: Resource-Conscious Deep Learning Models with Visual Explanations for ECG Arrhythmia Classification
Dipartimento di Informatica, Università di Verona, Verona, Italy（信息学院，威尼斯大学，威尼斯，意大利）；Department of Computer Science, School of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Business Administration, Karachi, Pakistan（计算机科学系，数学与计算机科学学院，商学院，卡拉奇，巴基斯坦）；Faculty of Information Technology, Salim Habib University, Karachi, Pakistan（信息技术学院，萨利姆·哈比大学，卡拉奇，巴基斯坦）
Objectives: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common heart rhythm disorder associated with deadly and debilitating consequences including heart failure, stroke, poor mental health, reduced quality of life and death. Having an automatic system that diagnoses various types of cardiac arrhythmias would assist cardiologists to initiate appropriate preventive measures and to improve the analysis of cardiac disease. To this end, this paper introduces a new approach to detect and classify automatically cardiac arrhythmias in electrocardiograms (ECG) recordings. Methods: The proposed approach used a combi…
Many people are currently suffering from heart diseases that can lead to untimely death. The most common heart abnormality is arrhythmia, which is simply irregular beating of the heart. A prediction system for the early intervention and prevention of heart diseases, including cardiovascular diseases (CDVs) and arrhythmia, is important. This paper introduces the classification of electrocardiogram (ECG) heartbeats into normal or abnormal. The approach is based on the combination of swarm optimization algorithms with a modified PannTompkins algorithm (MPTA) and support vector machines (SVMs). Th…
The classification of the electrocardiogram (ECG) signal has a vital impact on identifying heart-related diseases. This can ensure the premature finding of heart disease and the proper selection of the patient's customized treatment. However, the detection of arrhythmia is a challenging task to perform manually. This justifies the necessity of a technique for automatic detection of abnormal heart signals. Therefore, our work is based on the classification of five classes of ECG arrhythmic signals from Physionet's MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Dataset. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) have demonstrated si…
Electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is an important physiological signal which contains cardiac information and is the basis to diagnosis cardiac related diseases. In this paper, several innovative and efficient methods based on adaptive filter and empirical mode decomposition (EMD) to denoise ECG signal contaminated by various kinds of noise, including baseline wander (BW), power line interference (PLI), electrode motion artifact (EM) and muscle artifact (MA), are proposed. We first present a novel method based on EMD and adaptive filter for the removal of BW and PLI in ECG signal. We then extend …
Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur（印度工程科学与技术学院，斯赫普尔）；IIT (ISM), Dhanbad（印度理工学院（印度矿业学院），丹巴德）
In primary diagnosis and analysis of heart defects, an ECG signal plays a significant role. This paper presents a model for the prediction of ventricular tachycardia arrhythmia using noise filtering, a unique set of ECG features, and a machine learning-based classifier model. Before signal feature extraction, we detrend and denoise the signal to eliminate the noise for detecting features properly. After that necessary features have been extracted and necessary parameters related to these features are measured. Using these parameters, we prepared one efficient multiclass classifier model using …
Deep learning based ECG segmentation for delineation of diverse arrhythmias
Seoul National University（首尔大学）；Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine（蔚山大学医学院附属峨山医院）；Pusan National University Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine（釜山大学医学院附属釜山国立大学医院）；AI Institute, Seoul National University（首尔大学人工智能研究院）；Seoul National University Hospital（首尔大学医院）；Medifarmsoft Co., Ltd.（Medifarmsoft有限公司）
本文提出一种类 U-Net 的心电图分割模型及后处理算法，用于在多种心律失常条件下准确 delineation P、QRS 和 T 波，并针对标准基准中代表性不足的心律失常提出改进策略。
Mila（米拉研究所）；Université de Montréal（蒙特利尔大学）；Icentia（Icentia公司）；Polytechnique Montréal（蒙特利尔综合理工学院）
We release the largest public ECG dataset of continuous raw signals for representation learning containing 11 thousand patients and 2 billion labelled beats. Our goal is to enable semi-supervised ECG models to be made as well as to discover unknown subtypes of arrhythmia and anomalous ECG signal events. To this end, we propose an unsupervised representation learning task, evaluated in a semi-supervised fashion. We provide a set of baselines for different feature extractors that can be built upon. Additionally, we perform qualitative evaluations on results from PCA embeddings, where we identify…
Chonnam National University（全南国立大学）；University of Arkansas（阿肯色大学）；West Virginia University（西弗吉尼亚大学）
Electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is one of the most effective sources of information mainly employed for the diagnosis and prediction of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) connected with the abnormalities in heart rhythm. Clearly, single modality ECG (i.e. time series) cannot convey its complete characteristics, thus, exploiting both time and time-frequency modalities in the form of time-series data and spectrogram is needed. Leveraging the cutting-edge self-supervised learning (SSL) technique on unlabeled data, we propose SSL-based multimodality ECG classification. Our proposed network follows SSL …
Deep learning applied to electrocardiogram (ECG) data can be used to achieve personal authentication in biometric security applications, but it has not been widely used to diagnose cardiovascular disorders. We developed a deep learning model for the detection of arrhythmia in which time-sliced ECG data representing the distance between successive R-peaks are used as the input for a convolutional neural network (CNN). The main objective is developing the compact deep learning based detect system which minimally uses the dataset but delivers the confident accuracy rate of the Arrhythmia detectio…
Heartbeat classification using electrocardiogram (ECG) data is a vital assistive technology for wearable health solutions. We propose heartbeat feature classification based on a novel sparse representation using time-frequency joint distribution of ECG. Fundamental to this is a multi-layer perceptron, which incorporates these signatures to detect cardiac arrhythmia. This approach is validated with ECG data from MIT-BIH arrhythmia database. Results show that our approach has an average 95.7% accuracy, an improvement of 22% over state-of-the-art approaches. Additionally, ECG sparse distributed r…
It is challenging to visually detect heart disease from the electrocardiographic (ECG) signals. Implementing an automated ECG signal detection system can help diagnosis arrhythmia in order to improve the accuracy of diagnosis. In this paper, we proposed, implemented, and compared an automated system using two different frameworks of the combination of convolutional neural network (CNN) and long-short term memory (LSTM) for classifying normal sinus signals, atrial fibrillation, and other noisy signals. The dataset we used is from the MIT-BIT Arrhythmia Physionet. Our approach demonstrated that …
School of Computer Science and Technology, Harbin Institute of Technology（哈尔滨工业大学计算机科学与技术学院）；Peng Cheng Laboratory（鹏城实验室）；School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester（曼彻斯特大学物理与天文学院）；Northeastern University（东北大学）
Supervised deep learning has been widely used in the studies of automatic ECG classification, which largely benefits from sufficient annotation of large datasets. However, most of the existing large ECG datasets are roughly annotated, so the classification model trained on them can only detect the existence of abnormalities in a whole recording, but cannot determine their exact occurrence time. In addition, it may take huge time and economic cost to construct a fine-annotated ECG dataset. Therefore, this study proposes weakly supervised deep learning models for detecting abnormal ECG events an…
Enhanced ECG Arrhythmia Detection Accuracy by Optimizing Divergence-Based Data Fusion
Aerie Intelligent Technology Corp（艾瑞智能科技公司）；People’s Hospital of Shenzhen Baoan District Shenzhen（深圳市宝安区人民医院）；The Second Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University（深圳大学第二附属医院）
Zhejiang University（浙江大学）；The First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学附属第一医院）；HeartVoice Medical Technology（心声医疗科技）；University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学）；Peking University（北京大学）
With the development of deep learning-based methods, automated classification of electrocardiograms (ECGs) has recently gained much attention. Although the effectiveness of deep neural networks has been encouraging, the lack of information given by the outputs restricts clinicians' reexamination. If the uncertainty estimation comes along with the classification results, cardiologists can pay more attention to "uncertain" cases. Our study aims to classify ECGs with rejection based on data uncertainty and model uncertainty. We perform experiments on a real-world 12-lead ECG dataset. First, we es…
University of Lille（里尔大学）；ENSAIT（国立高等艺术与纺织工业学院）；GEMTEX–Laboratoire de Génie et Matériaux Textiles（纺织工程与材料实验室）；University of Kent（肯特大学）
Deep learning play a vital role in classifying different arrhythmias using the electrocardiography (ECG) data. Nevertheless, training deep learning models normally requires a large amount of data and it can lead to privacy concerns. Unfortunately, a large amount of healthcare data cannot be easily collected from a single silo. Additionally, deep learning models are like black-box, with no explainability of the predicted results, which is often required in clinical healthcare. This limits the application of deep learning in real-world health systems. In this paper, we design a new explainable a…
HARDC : A novel ECG-based heartbeat classification method to detect arrhythmia using hierarchical attention based dual structured RNN with dilated CNN
Universiti Malaysia Pahang（马来西亚彭亨大学）；Queensland University of Technology（昆士兰科技大学）；Islamic University（伊斯兰大学）；The University of Sydney（悉尼大学）；University of Cambridge（剑桥大学）；The Garvan Institute of Medical Research（加文医学研究所）；The University of Queensland（昆士兰大学）
Due to the data shortage problem, which is one of the major problems in the field of machine learning, the accuracy level of many applications remains well below the expected. It prevents researchers from producing new artificial intelligence-based systems with the available data. This problem can be solved by generating new synthetic data with augmentation methods. In this study, new ECG signals are produced using MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database by using Generative Adversarial Neural Networks (GAN), which is a modern data augmentation method. These generated data are used for training a machine l…
With tens of thousands of electrocardiogram (ECG) records processed by mobile cardiac event recorders every day, heart rhythm classification algorithms are an important tool for the continuous monitoring of patients at risk. We utilise an annotated dataset of 12,186 single-lead ECG recordings to build a diverse ensemble of recurrent neural networks (RNNs) that is able to distinguish between normal sinus rhythms, atrial fibrillation, other types of arrhythmia and signals that are too noisy to interpret. In order to ease learning over the temporal dimension, we introduce a novel task formulation…
National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University（国立阳明交通大学）；Oklahoma State University（俄克拉荷马州立大学）
Arrhythmia detection from ECG is an important research subject in the prevention and diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases. The prevailing studies formulate arrhythmia detection from ECG as a time series classification problem. Meanwhile, early detection of arrhythmia presents a real-world demand for early prevention and diagnosis. In this paper, we address a problem of cardiovascular disease early classification, which is a varied-length and long-length time series early classification problem as well. For solving this problem, we propose a deep reinforcement learning-based framework, namely S…
Electrocardiogram (ECG) is an authoritative source to diagnose and counter critical cardiovascular syndromes such as arrhythmia and myocardial infarction (MI). Current machine learning techniques either depend on manually extracted features or large and complex deep learning networks which merely utilize the 1D ECG signal directly. Since intelligent multimodal fusion can perform at the stateof-the-art level with an efficient deep network, therefore, in this paper, we propose two computationally efficient multimodal fusion frameworks for ECG heart beat classification called Multimodal Image Fus…
Multi-Window Temporal Analysis for Enhanced Arrhythmia Classification: Leveraging Long-Range Dependencies in Electrocardiogram Signals
AI4Health Department, Oldenburg University（奥尔登堡大学AI4Health部门）；Department of Cardiology, Angiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Charité Campus Mitte, German Heart Center of the Charité-University Medicine Berlin（查理医院梅特校区心内科、血管科和重症医学科，查理-柏林大学医学中心心脏中心）
Arrhythmia is a cardiovascular disease that manifests irregular heartbeats. In arrhythmia detection, the electrocardiogram (ECG) signal is an important diagnostic technique. However, manually evaluating ECG signals is a complicated and time-consuming task. With the application of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), the evaluation process has been accelerated and the performance is improved. It is noteworthy that the performance of CNNs heavily depends on their architecture design, which is a complex process grounded on expert experience and trial-and-error. In this paper, we propose a novel …
Institute of Theoretical and Applied Informatics, Polish Academy of Sciences（波兰科学院理论与应用信息学研究所）；Warsaw University of Technology（华沙理工大学）；Cracow University of Technology（克拉科夫理工大学）；Firat University（菲拉特大学）；Singapore University of Social Sciences（新加坡社会科学大学）；University of Southern Queensland（南昆士兰大学）；Ngee Ann Polytechnic（义安理工学院）；Asia University（亚洲大学）；Kumamoto University（熊本大学）；National Heart Centre Singapore（新加坡国家心脏中心）
Interpretation of electrocardiography (ECG) signals is required for diagnosing cardiac arrhythmia. Recently, machine learning techniques have been applied for automated computer-aided diagnosis. Machine learning tasks can be divided into regression and classification. Regression can be used for noise and artifacts removal as well as resolve issues of missing data from low sampling frequency. Classification task concerns the prediction of output diagnostic classes according to expert-labeled input classes. In this work, we propose a deep neural network model capable of solving regression and cl…
Investigation on the electrocardiogram (ECG) signals is an essential way to diagnose heart disease since the ECG process is noninvasive and easy to use. This work presents a supraventricular arrhythmia prediction model consisting of a few stages, including filtering of noise, a unique collection of ECG characteristics, and automated learning classifying model to classify distinct types, depending on their severity. We de-trend and de-noise a signal to reduce noise to better determine functionality before extractions are performed. After that, we present one R-peak detection method and Q-S dete…
A method for ECG compression, by imaging the record as a 2D array and implementing a transform lossy compression strategy, is advanced. The particularity of the proposed transformation consists in applying a Discrete Wavelet Transform along one of the dimensions and the Discrete Cosine Transform along the other dimension. The performance of the method is demonstrated on the MIT-BIH Arrhythmia database. Significant improvements upon the 1D version of the codec, and on benchmarks for 2D ECG compression, are achieved.
Manifold Learning for Personalized and Label-Free Detection of Cardiac Arrhythmias
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, 08544, New Jersey, USA（电气与计算机工程系，普林斯顿大学）；Princeton Precision Health, Princeton University, Princeton, 08544, New Jersey, USA（普林斯顿精准健康，普林斯顿大学）；Omenn-Darling Bioengineering Institute, Princeton University, 35 Ivy Lane, Princeton, 08540, New Jersey, USA（Omenn-Darling生物工程研究所，普林斯顿大学）
