In this work, we aim to characterise high-mass clumps with infall motions. We selected 327 clumps from the Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team 90-GHz (MALT90) survey, and identified 100 infall candidates. Combined with the results of He et al. (2015), we obtained a sample of 732 high-mass clumps, including 231 massive infall candidates and 501 clumps where infall is not detected. Objects in our sample were classified as pre-stellar, proto-stellar, HII or photo-dissociation region (PDR). The detection rates of the infall candidates in the pre-stellar, proto-stellar, HII and PDR stages are 41.2%, 36.6%, 30.6% and 12.7%, respectively. The infall candidates have a higher H$_{2}$ column density and volume density compared with the clumps where infall is not detected at every stage. For the infall candidates, the median values of the infall rates at the pre-stellar, proto-stellar, HII and PDR stages are 2.6$\times$10$^{-3}$, 7.0$\times$10$^{-3}$, 6.5$\times$10$^{-3}$ and 5.5$\times$10$^{-3}$ M$_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$, respectively. These values indicate that infall candidates at later evolutionary stages are still accumulating material efficiently. It is interesting to find that both infall candidates and clumps where infall is not detected show a clear trend of increasing mass from the pre-stellar to proto-stellar, and to the HII stages. The power indices of the clump mass function (ClMF) are 2.04$\pm$0.16 and 2.17$\pm$0.31 for the infall candidates and clumps where infall is not detected, respectively, which agree well with the power index of the stellar initial mass function (2.35) and the cold Planck cores (2.0).
Thirty massive clumps associated with bright infrared sources were observed to detect the infall signatures and characterize infall properties in the envelope of the massive clumps by APEX telescope in CO(4-3) and C$^{17}$O(3-2) lines. Eighteen objects have "blue profile" in CO(4-3) line with virial parameters less than 2, suggesting that global collapse is taking place in these massive clumps. The CO(4-3) lines were fitted by the two-layer model in order to obtain infall velocities and mass infall rates. Derived mass infall rates are from 10$^{-3}$ to 10$^{-1}$ M$_{\odot}$yr$^{-1}$. A positiv…
Infalling motions were detected and modeled toward this source. A mean infall velocity of 0.5 km/s with an infall mass rate of 5x10^-3 Solar masses per year was obtained. Also, a previously estimated value for the magnetic field strength in the plane of the sky was refined to be 855 micro Gauss which we used to calculate a mass-to-magnetic flux ratio of 1.9, or super-critical. The virial mass from turbulent motions was also calculated finding Mvir=563 solar masses, which gives a ratio of Msubmm/Mvir=5.9. Both values strongly suggest that this clump must be in a state of gravitational collapse.
The research of infall motion is a common means to study molecular cloud dynamics and the early process of star formation. Many works had been done in-depth research on infall. We searched the literature related to infall study of molecular cloud since 1994, summarized the infall sources identified by the authors. A total of 456 infall sources are catalogued. We classify them into high-mass and low-mass sources, in which the high-mass sources are divided into three evolutionary stages: prestellar, protostellar and HII region. We divide the sources into clumps and cores according to their sizes…
Cloud contraction and infall are the fundamental processes of star formation. While "blue-skewed" line profiles observed in high- mass star forming regions are commonly taken as evidence of infall by an ever increasing number of studies, their interpretation offers many pitfalls. Detecting infall via redshifted absorption in front of continuum sources is a much more direct and reliable method but so far mostly restricted toward absorption in the centimeter toward strong HII regions. Here we present a novel approach by probing absorption of rotational ammonia transitions in front of the strong …
The onset of massive star formation is not well understood because of observational and theoretical difficulties. To find the dense and cold clumps where massive star formation can take place, we compiled a sample of high infrared extinction clouds, which were observed previously by us in the 1.2 mm continuum emission and ammonia. We try to understand the star-formation stages of the clumps in these high extinction clouds by studying the infall and outflow properties, the presence of a young stellar object (YSO), and the level of the CO depletion through a molecular line survey with the IRAM 3…
We report the discovery of infalling motion with rotation of S235AB the massive cluster-forming clump (~10^3 Mo) in the S235 region. Our C18O observations with the 45m telescope at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory have revealed the elliptical shape of the clump. Position-velocity (PV) diagram taken along its major axis exhibits two well-defined peaks symmetrically located with respect to the clump center, which is similar to that found for a dynamically infalling envelope with rotation around a single protostar modeled by N. Ohashi and his collaborators, indicating that the cluster-forming clump…
Global and Local Infall in the ASHES Sample (GLASHES). II. Asymmetric Line Profiles around Dense Cores in 70 $μ$m Dark Massive Clumps
The University of Tokyo（东京大学）；Green Bank Observatory（格林班克天文台）；USRA SOFIA Science Center, NASA Ames Research Center（美国研究联合体SOFIA科学中心，NASA艾姆斯研究中心）；University of Newcastle（纽卡斯尔大学）
With the GREAT receiver at the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), nine massive molecular clumps have been observed in the ammonia $3_{2+}- 2_{2-}$ line at 1.8~THz in a search for signatures of infall. The sources were selected from the ATLASGAL submillimeter dust continuum survey of our Galaxy. Clumps with high masses covering a range of evolutionary stages based on their infrared properties were chosen. The ammonia line was detected in all sources, leading to five new detections and one confirmation of a previous detection of redshifted absorption in front of their stro…
The early evolution during massive star cluster formation is still uncertain. Observing embedded clusters at their earliest stages of formation can provide insight into the spatial and temporal distribution of the stars and thus probe different star cluster formation models. We present near-infrared imaging of an 8'*13'(5.4pc*8.7pc) region around the massive infalling clump G286.21+0.17(also known as BYF73). The stellar content across the field is determined and photometry is derived in order to { obtain} stellar parameters for the cluster members. We find evidence for some sub-structure (on s…
We report results of observations of the GGD12-15 region, where cluster formation is actively taking place, using various molecular emission lines. The C18O (J= 1-0) emission line reveals a massive clump in the region with a mass of ~2800 Mo distributed over ~2 pc. The distribution of the C18O(J= 3-2) emission is similar to that of a star cluster forming therein, with an elliptical shape of ~1 pc in size. A bipolar molecular outflow driven by IRS 9Mc, a constituent star of the cluster, is blowing in a direction perpendicular to the elongated C18O (J= 3-2) distribution, covering the entire clum…
The study of infall motion helps us to understand the initial stages of star formation. In this paper, we use the IRAM 30-m telescope to make mapping observations of 24 infall sources confirmed in previous work. The lines we use to track gas infall motions are HCO+ (1-0) and H13CO+ (1-0). All 24 sources show HCO+ emissions, while 18 sources show H13CO+ emissions. The HCO+ integrated intensity maps of 17 sources show clear clumpy structures; for the H13CO+ line, 15 sources show clumpy structures. We estimated the column density of HCO+ and H13CO+ using the RADEX radiation transfer code, and the…
Gravitational accretion accumulates the original mass, and this process is crucial for us to understand the initial phases of star formation. Using the specific infall profiles in optically thick and thin lines, we searched the clumps with infall motion from the Milky Way Imaging Scroll Painting (MWISP) CO data in previous work. In this study, we selected 133 sources of them as a sub-sample for further research and identification. The excitation temperatures of these sources are between 7.0 and 38.5 K, while the H_2 column densities are between 10^21 and 10^23 cm^-2. We have observed optically…
We investigate the infall properties in a sample of 11 infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) showing blue-asymmetry signatures in HCO$^{+}$ J=1--0 line profiles. We used JCMT to conduct mapping observations in HCO$^{+}$ J=4--3 as well as single-pointing observations in HCO$^{+}$ J =3--2, towards 23 clumps in these IRDCs. We applied the HILL model to fit these observations and derived infall velocities in the range of 0.5-2.7 km s$^{-1}$, with a median value of 1.0 km s$^{-1}$, and obtained mass accretion rates of 0.5-14$\times$10$^{-3}$ Msun yr$^{-1}$. These values are comparable to those found in mass…
(Context) Many physical parameters change with time in star forming regions. Here we attempt to correlate changes in infall and outflow motions in high mass star forming regions with evolutionary stage using JCMT observations. (Aims) From a sample of 45 high mass star forming regions in three phases of evolution, we investigate the presence of established infall and outflow tracers to determine whether there are any trends attributable to the age of the source. (Methods) We obtained JCMT observations of HCO+/H13CO+ J=4-3 to trace large scale infall, and SiO J=8-7 to trace recent outflow activi…
In this work, we perform a statistical investigation towards 50 high-mass clumps using the data from the Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey (BGPS) and the Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team 90-GHz survey (MALT90). Eleven dense molecular lines (N$_2$H$^+$(1-0), HNC(1-0), HCO$^+$(1-0), HCN(1-0), HN$^{13}$C(1-0), H$^{13}$CO$^+$(1-0), C$_2$H(1-0), HC$_3$N(10-9), SiO(2-1), $^{13}$CS(2-1) and HNCO$(4_{4,0}-3_{0,3}))$ are detected. N$_2$H$^+$ and HNC are shown to be good tracers for clumps in virous evolutionary stages since they are detected in all the fields. And the detection rates of N-bearing molecules…
We present $HST$ narrow-band near-infrared imaging of Pa$α$ and Pa$β$ emission of 48 local Luminous Infrared Galaxies (LIRGs) from the Great Observatories All-Sky LIRG Survey (GOALS). These data allow us to measure the properties of 810 spatially resolved star-forming regions (59 nuclei and 751 extra-nuclear clumps), and directly compare their properties to those found in both local and high-redshift star-forming galaxies. We find that in LIRGs, the star-forming clumps have radii ranging from $\sim90-900$ pc and star formation rates (SFRs) of $\sim1\times10^{-3}$ to 10 M$_\odot$yr$^{-1}$, with…
A total of 188 high-mass outflows have been identified from a sample of 694 clumps from the Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team 90 GHz survey, representing a detection rate of approximately 27%. The detection rate of outflows increases from the protostellar stage to the H II stage, but decreases again at the photodissociation (PDR) stage suggesting that outflows are being switched off during the PDR stage. An intimate relationship is found between outflow action and the presence of masers, and water masers appear together with 6.7 GHz methanol masers. Comparing the infall detection rate of clumps…
The innermost parsec around Sgr A* has been found to play host to two discs or streamers of O and W-R stars. They are misaligned by an angle approaching 90 degrees. That the stars are approximately coeval indicates that they formed in the same event rather than independently. We have performed SPH simulations of the infall of a single prolate cloud towards a massive black hole. As the cloud is disrupted, the large spread in angular momentum can, if conditions allow, lead to the creation of misaligned gas discs. In turn, stars may form within those discs. We are now investigating the origins of…
Luminous compact blue galaxies (LCBGs) have enhanced star formation rates and compact morphologies. We combine Sloan Digital Sky Survey data with HI data of 29 LCBGs at redshift z~0 to understand their nature. We find that local LCBGs have high atomic gas fractions (~50%) and star formation rates per stellar mass consistent with some high redshift star forming galaxies. Many local LCBGs also have clumpy morphologies, with clumps distributed across their disks. Although rare, these galaxies appear to be similar to the clumpy star forming galaxies commonly observed at z~1-3. Local LCBGs separate…
Massive, star-forming clumps are a common feature of high-redshift star-forming galaxies. How they formed, and why they are so rare at low redshift, remains unclear. In this paper we identify the largest yet sample of clumpy galaxies (7,052) at low redshift using data from the citizen science project \textit{Galaxy Zoo: Clump Scout}, in which volunteers classified over 58,000 Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) galaxies spanning redshift $0.02 < z < 0.15$. We apply a robust completeness correction by comparing with simulated clumps identified by the same method. Requiring that the ratio of clump-t…
We analyse stellar masses of clumps drawn from a compilation of star-forming galaxies at 1.1<z<3.6. Comparing clumps selected in different ways, and in lensed or blank field galaxies, we examine the effects of spatial resolution and sensitivity on the inferred stellar masses. Large differences are found, with median stellar masses ranging from ~10^9 Msun for clumps in the often-referenced field galaxies to ~10^7 Msun for fainter clumps selected in deep-field or lensed galaxies. We argue that the clump masses, observed in non-lensed galaxies with a limited spatial resolution of ~1 kpc, are arti…
Observations of distinct positions in Orion and W3 revealed ripples on the HCN(1-0), HCO^+(1-0) and CO(1-0) line profiles which can be result of emission of large number of unresolved thermal clumps in the beam that move with random velocities. The total number of such clumps are ~(0.4-4) 10^5 for the areas with linear sizes ~0.1-0.5 pc.
In this paper, we investigate the extent to which observations of molecular clouds can correctly identify and measure star-forming clumps. We produced a synthetic column density map and a synthetic spectral-line data cube from the simulated collapse of a 5000 M$_{\odot}$ molecular cloud. By correlating the clumps found in the simulation to those found in the synthetic observations, clump masses derived from spectral-line data cubes were found to be quite close to the true physical properties of the clumps. We also find that the `observed' clump mass function derived from the column density map…
We study young star-forming clumps on physical scales of 10-500 pc in the Lyman-Alpha Reference Sample (LARS), a collection of low-redshift (z = 0.03-0.2) UV-selected star-forming galaxies. In each of the 14 galaxies of the sample, we detect clumps for which we derive sizes and magnitudes in 5 UV-optical filters. The final sample includes $\sim$1400 clumps, of which $\sim$600 have magnitude uncertainties below 0.3 in all filters. The UV luminosity function for the total sample of clumps is described by a power-law with slope $α= -2.03^{+0.11}_{-0.13}$. Clumps in the LARS galaxies have on avera…
An Indication of Gas Inflow in Clumpy Star-Forming Galaxies near $z\sim1$: Lower Gas-Phase Metallicities in Clumpy Galaxies Compared to Non-Clumpy Galaxies
In the past, the cumulative metallicity distribution function (CMDF) turned out as a useful tool to constrain the accretion history of various components of the Milky Way. In this Letter, by means of analytical, leaky-box chemical evolution models (i.e. including both infall and galactic outflows) we study the CMDF of local star-forming galaxies that follow two fundamental empirical scaling relations, namely the mass-metallicity and main sequence relations. Our analysis shows that galactic winds, which are dominant mostly in low-mass systems, play a fundamental role in shaping this function an…
When the cosmic star formation history peaks (z ~ 2), galaxies vigorously fed by cosmic reservoirs are gas dominated and contain massive star-forming clumps, thought to form by violent gravitational instabilities in highly turbulent gas-rich disks. However, a clump formation event has not been witnessed yet, and it is debated whether clumps survive energetic feedback from young stars, thus migrating inwards to form galaxy bulges. Here we report spatially resolved spectroscopy of a bright off-nuclear emission line region in a galaxy at z = 1.987. Although this region dominates the star formatio…
Massive star-forming regions with observed infall motions are good sites for studying the birth of massive stars. In this paper, 405 compact sources have been extracted from the APEX Telescope Large Area Survey of the Galaxy (ATLASGAL) compact sources that also have been observed in the Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team 90 GHz (MALT90) survey during Years 1 and 2. These observations are complemented with Spitzer GLIMPSE/MIPSGAL mid-IR survey data to help classify the elected star-forming clumps into three evolutionary stages: pre-stellar, proto-stellar and UCHII regions. The results suggest tha…
To indirectly study the internal structure of giant clumps in main sequence galaxies at $z \sim 1-3$, we target very turbulent and gas-rich local analogues from the DYNAMO sample with the Hubble Space Telescope, over a wavelength range of $\sim 200-480$ nm. We present a catalog of 58 clumps identified in six DYNAMO galaxies, including the WFC3/UVIS F225W, F336W, and F467M photometry where the ($225-336$) and ($336-467$) colours are sensitive to extinction and stellar population age respectively. We measure the internal colour gradients of clumps themselves to study their age and extinction pro…
Star-forming clumps dominate the rest-frame ultraviolet morphology of galaxies at the peak of cosmic star formation. If turbulence driven fragmentation is the mechanism responsible for their formation, we expect their stellar mass function to follow a power-law of slope close to $-2$. We test this hypothesis performing the first analysis of the stellar mass function of clumps hosted in galaxies at $z\sim 1-3.5$. The clump sample is gathered from the literature with similar detection thresholds and stellar masses determined in a homogeneous way. To overcome the small number statistics per galax…
How mass is accumulated from cloud-scale down to individual stars is a key open question in understanding high-mass star formation. Here, we present the mass accumulation process in a hub-filament cloud G22 which is composed of four supercritical filaments. Velocity gradients detected along three filaments indicate that they are collapsing with a total mass infall rate of about 440 $M_\odot$ Myr$^{-1}$, suggesting the hub mass would be doubled in six free-fall times, adding up to $ \sim2 $ Myr. A fraction of the masses in the central clumps C1 and C2 can be accounted for through large-scale fi…
An inverted infall profile for the collapse of the massive star-forming IRDC SDC335.579-0.292
State Key Laboratory of Radio Astronomy and Technology, Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院新疆天文台射电天文与技术重点实验室）；Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Manchester（曼彻斯特大学物理与天文学系乔德雷尔银行天体物理学中心）；National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院国家天文台）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院大学）；Intituto de Astrofísica de Andalucia (CSIC)（安达卢西亚天体物理研究所（西班牙科学理事会））；I. Physikalisches Institut, University of Cologne（科隆大学第一物理研究所）；New Cornerstone Science Laboratory, Department of Astronomy, Tsinghua University（清华大学天文学系新 Cornerstone 科学实验室）；SUPA School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St A（圣安德鲁斯大学物理与天文学学院（苏格兰大学联盟））
We present a pixelized source reconstruction method applied on Integral Field Spectroscopic (IFS) observations of gravitationally lensed galaxies. We demonstrate the effectiveness of this method in a case study on the clumpy morphology of a $z \sim 2$ lensed galaxy behind a group-scale lens. We use a Bayesian forward source modelling approach to reconstruct the surface brightness distribution of the source galaxy on a uniformly pixelized grid while accounting for the image point spread function (PSF). The pixelated approach is sensitive to clump sizes down to 100 pc and resolves smaller clump …
Recent observations and hydrodynamical simulations of star formation inside a giant molecular cloud have revealed that, within a star forming region, stars do not form evenly distributed throughout this region, but rather in small sub-clumps. It is generally believed that these sub-clumps merge and form a young star cluster. The time-scale of this merging process is crucial for the evolution and the possible survival of the final star cluster. The key issue is whether this merging process happens faster than the time needed to remove the residual gas of the cloud. A merging time-scale shorter …
G22 is a hub-filament system composed of four supercritical filaments. Velocity gradients are detected along three filaments. A total mass infall rate of 440 $M_\odot$~Myr$^{-1}$ would double the hub mass in about six free-fall times. The most massive clump C1 would be in global collapse with an infall velocity of 0.31 km s$^{-1}$ and a mass infall rate of $ 7.2\times10^{-4} $ $M_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$, which is supported by the prevalent HCO$^+$ (3-2) and $^{13}$CO (3-2) blue profiles. A hot molecular core (SMA1) was revealed in C1. At the SMA1 center, there is a massive protostar (MIR1) driving mu…
The spatial distribution and physical sizes of star forming clumps at the smallest scales provide valuable information on hierarchical star formation (SF). In this context, we report the sites of ongoing SF at ~120 pc along the interacting galaxies in Stephan's Quintet (SQ) compact group using AstroSat-UVIT and JWST data. Since ultraviolet radiation is a direct tracer of recent SF, we identified star forming clumps in this compact group from the FUV imaging which we used to guide us to detect star forming regions on JWST IR images. The FUV imaging reveals star forming regions within which we d…
We study the population of star-forming clumps in A521-sys1, a $\rm z=1.04$ system gravitationally lensed by the foreground ($\rm z=0.25$) cluster Abell 0521. The galaxy presents one complete counter--image with a mean magnification of $\rm μ\sim4$ and a wide arc containing two partial images of A521-sys1 with magnifications reaching $\rm μ>20$, allowing the investigations of clumps down to scales of $\rm R_{eff}<50$ pc. We identify 18 unique clumps with a total of 45 multiple images. Intrinsic sizes and UV magnitudes reveal clumps with elevated surface brightnesses, comparable to similar syst…
The Clusters, Clumps, Dust, and Gas in Extreme Star-Forming Galaxies (CCDG) survey with the Hubble Space Telescope includes multi-wavelength imaging of 13 galaxies less than 100 Mpc away spanning a range of morphologies and sizes, from Blue Compact Dwarfs (BCDs) to luminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs), all with star formation rates in excess of hundreds of solar masses per year. Images of 7 merging galaxies in the CCDG survey were artificially redshifted to compare with galaxies at z=0.5, 1, and 2. Most redshifted tails have surface brightnesses that would be visible at z=0.5 or 1 but not at z=2…
Initial conditions for star formation in clusters are estimated for protostars whose masses follow the initial mass function (IMF) from 0.05 to 10 solar masses. Star-forming infall is assumed equally likely to stop at any moment, due to gas dispersal dominated by stellar feedback. For spherical infall, the typical initial condensation must have a steep density gradient, as in low-mass cores, surrounded by a shallower gradient, as in the clumps around cores. These properties match observed column densities in cluster-forming regions when the mean infall stopping time is 0.05 Myr and the accreti…
We present an 8 pc x 5 pc resolution view of the central ~ 200 pc region of the nearby starburst galaxy NGC 253, based on ALMA Band 7 (λ ~ 0.85 mm or ν ~ 350 GHz) observations covering 11 GHz. We resolve the nuclear starburst of NGC 253 into eight dusty star-forming clumps, 10 pc in scale, for the first time. These clumps, each of which contains (4-10) x 10^4 M_sun of dust (assuming that the dust temperature is 25 K) and up to 6 x 10^2 massive (O5V) stars, appear to be aligned in two parallel ridges, while they have been blended in previous studies. Despite the similarities in sizes and dust m…
Dust attenuation in galaxies has been extensively studied nearby, however, there are still many unknowns regarding attenuation in distant galaxies. We contribute to this effort using observations of star-forming galaxies in the redshift range z = 0.05-0.15 from the DYNAMO survey. Highly star-forming DYNAMO galaxies share many similar attributes to clumpy, star-forming galaxies at high redshift. Considering integrated Sloan Digital Sky Survey observations, trends between attenuation and other galaxy properties for DYNAMO galaxies are well matched to star-forming galaxies at high redshift. Integ…
We study the fragmentation of eight massive clumps using data from ATLASGAL 870 $μ$m, SCUBA 850 and 450 $μ$m, PdBI 1.3 and 3.5 mm, and probe the fragmentation from 1 pc to 0.01 pc scale. We find that the masses and the sizes of our objects follow $M \sim r^{1.68\pm0.05}$. The results are in agreements with the predictions of Li (2017) where $M \sim r^{5/3}$. Inside each object, the densest structures seem to be centrally condensed, with $ρ(r)\sim r^{-2}$. Our observational results support a scenario where molecular gas in the Milky Way is supported by a turbulence characterized by a constant e…
High-resolution simulations of star-forming massive galactic discs have shown that clumps form with a characteristic baryonic mass in the range $10^7-10^8~M_{\odot}$, with a small tail exceeding $10^9~M_{\odot}$ produced by clump-clump mergers. This is in contrast with the observed kpc-size clumps with masses up to $10^{10}~M_{\odot}$ in high-redshift star-forming galaxies. In this paper we show that the comparison between simulated and observed star-forming clumps is hindered by limited observational spatial resolution and sensitivity. We post-process high-resolution hydrodynamical simulation…
SCALES. II. The Internal Composition of Giant Star-Forming Clumps at $z = 1 - 4$
Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University（北京大学科维理天文与天体物理研究所）；Kavli IPMU (WPI), UTIAS, The University of Tokyo（东京大学Kavli宇宙起源研究中心（WPI）/UTIAS）；Univ Lyon, Univ Lyon1, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon UMR5574（里昂大学/里昂第一大学/里昂高等师范学院/CNRS/里昂天体物理研究中心）；Department of Astronomy, School of Physics, Peking University（北京大学物理学院天文学系）；Département d’Astronomie, Université de Genève（日内瓦大学天文学系）；Max-Planck-Institut fur extraterrestrische Physik（马克斯·普朗克地外物理研究所）；Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM（巴黎萨克雷大学/巴黎西岱大学/法国原子能和替代能源委员会/CNRS/AIM）；Department of Astronomy, School of Science, The University of Tokyo（东京大学理学部天文学系）
The degradation of spatial resolution in star-forming regions observed at large distances ($d\gtrsim1$ kpc) with Herschel,can lead to estimates of the physical parameters of the detected compact sources (clumps) which do not necessarily mirror the properties of the original population of cores. This paper aims at quantifying the bias introduced in the estimation of these parameters by the distance effect. To do so, we consider Herschel maps of nearby star-forming regions taken from the Herschel-Gould-Belt survey, and simulate the effect of increased distance to understand what amount of inform…
