Small-scale magnetic features are present everywhere in the solar photosphere. Theoretical models, numerical calculations, and simulations describing the formation of these features have existed for a few decades, but there are only a few observational studies in direct support of the simulations. In this study we present the evolution of small-scale magnetic features with a spatial resolution close to 0.15 arcsecond and compare these observations with those predicted by numerical simulations and also with previous observational work of a similar nature. We analyze a 40 min time sequence of full Stokes spectropolarimetric 630.25 nm data from a plage region near the Sun center. We use line-of-sight velocities and magnetic field measurements obtained using Milne-Eddington inversion techniques with and without stray-light compensation along with measured continuum and line minimum intensities. We discuss the results in relation to earlier observations and simulations. We present eight cases involving strong downflows and magnetic field intensification. All cases studied are associated with the formation of a bright point in the continuum. In three out of the eight cases we find the presence of weak opposite polarity field in close proximity to the downflow. Our data are consistent with earlier simulations describing flux tube collapse, but the transition to a state with stronger field appears transient and short-lived, rather than resulting in a permanent field intensification. Three cases of weak opposite polarity field found adjacent to the downflows do not appear related to reconnection but may be related to overturning convection pulling down some field lines and leading to up/down "serpentine" field, as seen in some simulations.
Recent spectro-polarimetric observations have provided detailed measurements of magnetic field, velocity and intensity during events of magnetic field intensification in the solar photosphere. We consider the temporal evolution of the relevant physical quantities for three cases of magnetic field intensification in a numerical simulation. We determine the evolution of the intensity, magnetic flux density and zero-crossing velocity derived from the synthetic Stokes parameters by taking into account the spectral and spatial resolution of the spectropolarimeter (SP) on board Hinode. The three eve…
Recent high resolution spectropolarimetric observations from Hinode detected the presence of supersonic downflows in a sunspot light bridge (Louis et al. 2009). These downflows occurred in localized patches, close to regions where the field azimuth changed by a large value. This apparent discontinuity in the field azimuth was seen along a thin ridge running along the western edge of the light bridge. Some, but not all, of these downflowing patches were co-spatial with chromospheric brightness enhancements seen in Ca II H filtergrams. The presence of magnetic inhomogeneities at scales of 0.3 ar…
A sunspot penumbra is observationally examined to reveal properties of small-scale flow structures and how they are related to the filamentary magnetic structures and the Evershed flow. We also study how the photospheric dynamics is related to chromospheric activities. The study is based on data analysis of spectro-polarimetric observations of photospheric Fe I lines with the Solar Optical Telescope aboard Hinode in a sunspot penumbra at different heliocentric angles. Vector magnetic fields and velocities are derived using the spectro-polarimetric data and a Stokes inversion technique. An obse…
We report the discovery of supersonic downflows in a sunspot light bridge using measurements taken with the spectropolarimeter on board the Hinode satellite. The downflows occur in small patches close to regions where the vector magnetic field changes orientation rapidly, and are associated with anomalous circular polarization profiles. An inversion of the observed Stokes spectra reveals velocities of up to 10 km/s, making them the strongest photospheric flows ever measured in light bridges. Some (but not all) of the downflowing patches are cospatial and cotemporal with brightness enhancements…
We study the velocity structure of penumbral filaments in the deep photosphere to obtain direct evidence for the convective nature of sunspot penumbrae. A sunspot was observed at high spatial resolution with the 1-m Swedish Solar Telescope in the deep photospheric C I 5380 Å absorption line. The Multi-Object Multi-Frame Blind Deconvolution (MOMFBD) method is used for image restoration and straylight is filtered out. We report here the discovery of clear redshifts in the C I 5380 Å line at multiple locations in sunspot penumbral filaments. For example, bright head of filaments show larger conce…
Super-sonic downflows have been observed in transition region spectra above numerous sunspots; however, little research has been conducted to date into how persistent these signatures are within sunspots on time-scales longer than a few hours. Here, we analyse the lead sunspot of AR 12526 to infer the properties and evolution of super-sonic downflows occurring within it. Sixteen large, dense raster scans sampled by IRIS are analysed. These rasters tracked the lead sunspot of AR 12526 at discrete times between the 27th March 2016 and the 2nd April 2016. One sit-and-stare observation acquired on…
IRIS data allow us to study the solar transition region (TR) with an unprecedented spatial resolution of 0.33 arcsec. On 2013 August 30, we observed bursts of high Doppler shifts suggesting strong supersonic downflows of up to 200 km/s and weaker, slightly slower upflows in the spectral lines Mg II h and k, C II 1336 Å, Si IV 1394 Å, and 1403 Å, that are correlated with brightenings in the slitjaw images (SJIs). The bursty behavior lasts throughout the 2 hr observation, with average burst durations of about 20 s. The locations of these short-lived events appear to be the umbral and penumbral f…
Perhaps the most compelling evidence for the role of magnetic reconnection in solar flares comes from the supra-arcade downflows that have been observed above many post-flare loop arcades. These downflows are thought to be related to highly non-potential field lines that have reconnected and are propagating away from the current sheet. We present new observations of supra-arcade downflows taken with the Atmospheric Imagining Assembly (AIA) on the \textit{Solar Dynamics Observatory} (\textit{SDO}). The morphology and dynamics of the downflows observed with AIA provide new evidence for the role …
The evolution of the physical parameters of magnetic bright points (MBPs) located in the quiet Sun (mainly in the interwork) during their lifetime is studied. First we concentrate on the detailed description of the magnetic field evolution of three MBPs. This reveals that individual features follow different, generally complex, and rather dynamic scenarios of evolution. Next we apply statistical methods on roughly 200 observed MBP evolutionary tracks. MBPs are found to be formed by the strengthening of an equipartition field patch, which initially exhibits a moderate downflow. During the evolu…
Solar granules are bright patterns surrounded by dark channels called intergranular lanes in the solar photosphere and are a manifestation of overshooting convection. Observational studies generally find stronger upflows in granules and weaker downflows in intergranular lanes. This trend is, however, inconsistent with the results of numerical simulations in which downflows are stronger than upflows through the joint action of gravitational acceleration/deceleration and pressure gradients. One cause of this discrepancy is the image degradation caused by optical distortion and light diffraction …
We report on magnetic field emergences covering significant areas of exploding granules. The balloon-borne mission SUNRISE provided high spatial and temporal resolution images of the solar photosphere. Continuum images, longitudinal and transverse magnetic field maps and Dopplergrams obtained by IMaX onboard SUNRISE are analyzed by Local Correlation Traking (LCT), divergence calculation and time slices, Stokes inversions and numerical simulations are also employed. We characterize two mesogranular-scale exploding granules where $\sim$ 10$^{18}$ Mx of magnetic flux emerges. The emergence of wea…
Light bridges are the most prominent manifestation of convection in sunspots. The brightest representatives are granular light bridges composed of features that appear to be similar to granules. An in-depth study of the convective motions, temperature stratification, and magnetic field vector in and around light bridge granules is presented with the aim of identifying similarities and differences to typical quiet-Sun granules. Spectropolarimetric data from the Hinode Solar Optical Telescope were analyzed using a spatially coupled inversion technique to retrieve the stratified atmospheric param…
As one of the most spectacular energy release events in the solar system, solar flares are generally powered by magnetic reconnection in the solar corona. As a result of the re-arrangement of magnetic field topology after the reconnection process, a series of new loop-like magnetic structures are often formed and are known as flare loops. A hot diffuse region, consisting of around 5-10 MK plasma, is also observed above the loops and is called a supra-arcade fan. Often, dark, tadpole-like structures are seen to descend through the bright supra-arcade fans. It remains unclear what role these so-…
Plasma loops or plumes rooted in sunspot umbrae often harbor downflows with speeds of 100 km/s. These downflows are supersonic at transition region temperatures of 0.1 MK. The source of these flows is not well understood. We aim to investigate the source of sunspot supersonic downflows (SSDs) in AR 12740 using simultaneous spectroscopic and imaging observations. We identified SSD events from multiple raster scans of a sunspot by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, and calculated the electron densities, mass fluxes and velocities of these SSDs. The EUV images provided by the AIA onboard …
Isolated flux tubes are considered to be fundamental magnetic building blocks of the solar photosphere. Their formation is usually attributed to the concentration of magnetic field to kG strengths by the convective collapse mechanism. However, the small size of the magnetic elements in quiet-Sun areas has prevented this scenario from being studied in fully resolved structures. Here we report on the formation and subsequent evolution of one such photospheric magnetic flux tube, observed in the quiet Sun with unprecedented spatial resolution (0\farcs 15 - 0\farcs 18) and high temporal cadence (3…
Short-lived (100s or less), sub-arcsec to a couple of arcsec size features of enhanced brightenings in the narrowband images at the $\mathrm{H_{2V}}$ and $\mathrm{K_{2V}}$ positions of the Ca II H and K lines in the quiet Sun are known as bright grains. With simultaneous observations of a quiet Sun internetwork region in the Fe I 6173 Å, Ca II 8542 {AA}, and Ca II K lines acquired by the CRisp Imaging Spectro-Polarimeter and the CHROMospheric Imaging Spectrometer instruments on the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope, we performed multi-line non-local thermodynamic equilibrium inversions using the STo…
Supersonic flows observed by THEMIS related to a coronal bright point and filament
Kumaun University（库马翁大学）；Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris Cité（巴黎天文台，巴黎文理研究大学，法国国家科学研究中心，索邦大学，巴黎西岱大学）；KU Leuven（荷语鲁汶大学）；University of Glasgow（格拉斯哥大学）；LUNEX EMMESI Institut（LUNEX EMMESI研究所）；University of Oslo（奥斯陆大学）；University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska（玛丽亚·居里-斯可洛多夫斯卡大学）
Aims: to investigate the evolution of plasma properties and Stokes parameters in photospheric magnetic bright points using 3D magneto-hydrodynamical simulations and radiative diagnostics of solar granulation. Methods: simulated time-dependent radiation parameters and plasma properties were investigated throughout the evolution of a bright point. Synthetic Stokes profiles for the FeI 630.25 nm line were calculated, which allowed the evolution of the Stokes-I line strength and Stokes-V area and amplitude asymmetries to also be investigated. Results: our results are consistent with theoretical pr…
In this work, we study and quantify properties of strong-field small-scale convection and compare observed properties with those predicted by numerical simulations. We analyze spectropolarimetric 630.25 nm data from a unipolar ephemeral region near sun center. We use line-of-sight velocities and magnetic field measurements obtained with Milne-Eddington inversion techniques along with measured continuum intensities and Stokes V amplitude asymmetry at a spatial resolution of 0.15 arcseconds to establish statistical relations between the measured quantities. We also study these properties for dif…
We compare the properties of kG magnetic structures in the solar network and in active region plage at high spatial resolution. Our analysis used six SP scans of the solar disc centre aboard Hinode SOT and inverted the obtained spectra of the photospheric 6302 Åline pair using the 2D SPINOR code. Photospheric magnetic field concentrations in network and plage areas are on average 1.5 kG strong with inclinations of 10-20 degrees, and have <400 m/s internal and 2-3 km/s external downflows. At the disc centre, the continuum intensity of magnetic field concentrations in the network are on average …
Numerical simulations indicate that the filamentation of sunspot penumbrae and the associated systematic outflow (the Evershed effect) are due to convectively driven fluid motions constrained by the inclined magnetic field. We investigate whether these motions, in particular the upflows in the bright filaments and the downflows at their edges can be reliably observed with existing instrumentation. We use a snapshot from a sunspot simulation to calculate 2D maps of synthetic line profiles for the spectral lines Fe\sci 7090.4 Å~ and C\sci 5380.34 Å. The maps are spatially and spectrally degraded…
Aims. Convective collapse, a theoretically predicted process that intensifies existing weak magnetic fields in the solar atmosphere, was first directly observed in a single event by Nagata et al. (2008) using the high resolution Solar Optical Telescope (SOT) of the Hinode satellite. Using the same space telescope, we performed a statistical analysis of convective collapse events. Methods. Our data sets consist of high resolution time series of polarimetric spectral scans of two iron lines formed in the lower photosphere and filter images in Mg I b2 and Ca II H, spectral lines that are formed i…
Recent numerical simulations of sunspots suggest that overturning convection is responsible for the existence of penumbral filaments and the Evershed flow, but there is little observational evidence of this process. Here we carry out a spectroscopic search for small-scale convective motions in the penumbra of a sunspot located 5 deg away from the disk center. The position of the spot is very favorable for the detection of overturning downflows at the edges of penumbral filaments. Our analysis is based on measurements of the Fe I 709.0 nm line taken with the Littrow spectrograph of the Swedish …
High cadence, multiwavelength, optical observations of solar magnetic bright points, captured at disk center using the ROSA and IBIS imaging systems on the Dunn Solar Telescope, are presented. Magnetic bright points manifesting in the Na I D1 core are found to preferentially exist in regions containing strong downflows, in addition to co-spatial underlying photospheric magnetic field concentrations. Downdrafts within Na I D1 bright points exhibit speeds of up to 7km/s, with preferred structural symmetry in intensity, magnetic field and velocity profiles about the bright point center. Excess in…
Bright points (BPs) are manifestations of small magnetic elements in the solar photosphere. Their brightness contrast not only gives insight into the thermal state of the photosphere (and chromosphere) in magnetic elements, but also plays an important role in modulating the solar total and spectral irradiance. Here we report on simultaneous high-resolution imaging and spectropolarimetric observations of BPs using Sunrise balloon-borne observatory data of the quiet Sun at disk center. BP contrasts have been measured between 214 nm and 525 nm, including the first measurements at wavelengths belo…
Dense plasma fragments were observed to fall back on the solar surface by the Solar Dynamics Observatory after an eruption on 7 June 2011, producing strong EUV brightenings. Previous studies investigated impacts in regions of weak magnetic field. Here we model the $\sim~300$ km/s impact of fragments channelled by the magnetic field close to active regions. In the observations, the magnetic channel brightens before the fragment impact. We use a 3D-MHD model of spherical blobs downfalling in a magnetized atmosphere. The blob parameters are constrained from the observation. We run numerical simul…
Broad-band images of the solar chromosphere in the Ca II H&K line cores around active regions are covered with fine bright elongated structures called bright fibrils. The mechanisms that form these structures and cause them to appear bright are still unknown. We aim to investigate the physical properties, such as temperature, line-of-sight velocity, and microturbulence, in the atmosphere that produces bright fibrils and to compare those to the properties of their surrounding atmosphere. We used simultaneous observations of a plage region in Fe I 6301-2 Å, Ca II 8542 Å, Ca II K, and H$α$ acquir…
We take advantage of the HMI/SDO instrument to study the naked emergence of active regions from the first imprints of the magnetic field on the solar surface. To this end, we followed the first 24 hours in the life of two rather isolated ARs that appeared on the surface when they were about to cross the central meridian. We analyze the correlations between Doppler velocities and the orientation of the vector magnetic field finding, consistently, that the horizontal fields connecting the main polarities are dragged to the surface by relatively-strong upflows and are associated to elongated gran…
Observations with the 1-m Swedish Solar Telescope of the flows seen in penumbral filaments are presented. Time sequences of bright filaments show overturning motions strikingly similar to those seen along the walls of small isolated structures in the active regions. The filaments show outward propagating striations with inclination angles suggesting that they are aligned with the local magnetic field. We interpret it as the equivalent of the striations seen in the walls of small isolated magnetic structures. Their origin is then a corrugation of the boundary between an overturning convective f…
Context. Magnetic bright points (MBPs) are dynamic, small-scale magnetic elements often found with field strengths of the order of a kilogauss within intergranular lanes in the photosphere. Aims. Here we study the evolution of various physical properties inferred from inverting high-resolution full Stokes spectropolarimetry data obtained from ground-based observations of the quiet Sun at disc centre. Methods. Using automated feature-tracking algorithms, we studied 300 MBPs and analysed their temporal evolution as they evolved to kilogauss field strengths. These properties were inferred using b…
Solar activity is controlled by the magnetic field, which also causes the variability of the solar irradiance that in turn is thought to influence the climate on Earth. The magnetic field manifests itself in the form of structures of largely different sizes. This thesis concentrates on two types of the smallest known magnetic features: The first part studies the properties of umbral dots, dot-like bright features in the dark umbra of a sunspot. The obtained umbral dot properties provide a remarkable confirmation of the results of recent magneto-hydrodynamical simulations. Observations as well …
EK Draconis (HD 129333: G1.5 V) is a well-known young (50 Myr) solar analog. In 2012, Hubble Space Telescope returned to EK Dra to follow up a far-ultraviolet (FUV) SNAPshot visit by Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) two years earlier. The brief SNAP pointing had found surprisingly redshifted, impulsively variable subcoronal "hot-line" emission of Si IV 140 nm (T~ 80,000 K). Serendipitously, the 2012 follow-on program witnessed one of the largest FUV flares ever recorded on a sunlike star, which again displayed strong redshifts (downflows) of 30-40 km/s, even after compensating for small syste…
We report on the plasma properties of small-scale transient events identified in the quiet Sun, coronal holes and their boundaries. We use spectroscopic co-observations from SUMER/SoHO and EIS/Hinode combined with high cadence imaging data from XRT/Hinode. We measure Doppler shifts using single and multiple Gauss fits of transition region and coronal lines as well as electron densities and temperatures. We combine co-temporal imaging and spectroscopy to separate brightening expansions from plasma flows. The transient brightening events in coronal holes and their boundaries were found to be ver…
Recent progress in theoretical modeling of a sunspot is reviewed. The observed properties of umbral dots are well reproduced by realistic simulations of magnetoconvection in a vertical, monolithic magnetic field. To understand the penumbra, it is useful to distinguish between the inner penumbra, dominated by bright filaments containing slender dark cores, and the outer penumbra, made up of dark and bright filaments of comparable width with corresponding magnetic fields differing in inclination by some 30 degrees and strong Evershed flows in the dark filaments along nearly horizontal or downwar…
We describe a scenario for the topology of the magnetic field in penumbrae that accounts for recent observations showing upflows, downflows, and reverse magnetic polarities. According to our conjecture, short narrow magnetic loops fill the penumbral photosphere. Flows along these arched field lines are responsible for both the Evershed effect and the convective transport. This scenario seems to be qualitatively consistent with most existing observations, including the dark cores in penumbral filaments reported by Scharmer et al. Each bright filament with dark core would be a system of two pair…
High resolution spectropolarimetric data obtained by HINODE is used to characterize the small-scale penumbral magnetic field as well as the vertical and horizontal component of the Evershed effect (EE). The results demonstrate that the penumbral velocity field differs significantly from that of the quiet Sun. Morphological studies yield elongated upflow channels in the inner penumbra and round downflows in the outer penumbra. These flows are identified as the sources and the sinks of the EE. Remarkable is the high plasma velocity in these sinks, which is much larger when compared to the quiet …
The formation and the temporal evolution of a bipolar moving magnetic feature (MMF) was studied with high spatial and temporal resolution. The photometric properties were observed with the New Solar Telescope at Big Bear Solar Observatory using a broadband TiO filter (705.7 nm), while the magnetic field was analyzed using the spectropolarimetric data obtained by Hinode. For the first time, we observed a bipolar MMF simultaneously in intensity images and magnetic field data, and studied the details of its structure. The vector magnetic field and the Doppler velocity of the MMF were also studied…
Solar ultraviolet (UV) bursts are small-scale compact brightenings in transition region images. The spectral profiles of transition region lines in these bursts are significantly enhanced and broadened, often with chromospheric absorption lines such as Ni~{\sc{ii}} 1335.203 and 1393.330 Å superimposed. We investigate the properties of several UV bursts using a coordinated observation of the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), and \textit{Hinode} on 2015 February 7. We have identified 12 UV bursts, and 11 of them reveal small blueshifts of the Ni~{\sc…
We present a series of numerical sunspot models addressing the subsurface field and flow structure in up to 16 Mm deep domains covering up to 2 days of temporal evolution. Changes in the photospheric appearance of the sunspots are driven by subsurface flows in several Mm depth. Most of magnetic field is pushed into a downflow vertex of the subsurface convection pattern, while some fraction of the flux separates from the main trunk of the spot. Flux separation in deeper layers is accompanied in the photosphere with light bridge formation in the early stages and formation of pores separating fro…
In this paper, we report our multiwavelength observations of the C4.2 circular-ribbon flare in active region (AR) 12434 on 2015 October 16. The short-lived flare was associated with positive magnetic polarities and a negative polarity inside, as revealed by the photospheric line-of-sight magnetograms. Such magnetic pattern is strongly indicative of a magnetic null point and spine-fan configuration in the corona. The flare was triggered by the eruption of a mini-filament residing in the AR, which produced the inner flare ribbon (IFR) and the southern part of a closed circular flare ribbon (CFR)…
We report on the dynamical interaction of quiet-Sun magnetic fields and granular convection in the solar photosphere as seen by \textsc{Sunrise}. We use high spatial resolution (0\farcs 15--0\farcs 18) and temporal cadence (33 s) spectropolarimetric Imaging Magnetograph eXperiment data, together with simultaneous CN and Ca\,\textsc{ii}\,H filtergrams from \textsc{Sunrise} Filter Imager. We apply the SIR inversion code to the polarimetric data in order to infer the line of sight velocity and vector magnetic field in the photosphere. The analysis reveals bundles of individual flux tubes evolving…
Context : Penumbrae are an important characteristic of sunspots, whose formation is intricately related to the nature of sub-photospheric magnetic fields. Aims : We study the formation of a penumbra in a decaying sunspot and compare its properties with those seen during the development of a proto-spot. Methods : High-resolution spectropolarimetric observations of active region NOAA 11283 were obtained from the spectro-polarimeter on board Hinode. These were complemented with full-disk filtergrams of continuum intensity, line-of-sight magnetograms, and dopplergrams from the Helioseismic and Mag…
The goal of this work is to study magnetic fields of the cool, eclipsing binary star UV Piscium (UV Psc). This system contains two active late-type stars, UV Psc A (G5V) and B (K3V). To obtain a complete picture, the properties of both global and local magnetic field structures are studied for both components. High-resolution intensity and circular polarisation spectra, collected in 2016 with the ESPaDOnS spectropolarimeter at the CFHT, were used to analyse the magnetic field of UV Psc. To increase the signal-to-noise ratio, the multi-line technique of least-squares deconvolution (LSD) was use…
Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) erupt and expand in a magnetically structured solar corona. Various indirect observational pieces of evidence have shown that the magnetic field of CMEs reconnects with surrounding magnetic fields, forming, e.g., dimming regions distant from the CME source regions. Analyzing Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) observations of the eruption from AR 11226 on 2011 June 7, we present the first direct evidence of coronal magnetic reconnection between the fields of two adjacent ARs during a CME. The observations are presented jointly with a data-constrained numerical simula…
One important feature of sunspots is the presence of light bridges. These structures are elongated and bright (as compared to the umbra) features that seem to be related to the formation and evolution of sunspots. In this work, we studied the long-term evolution and the stratification of different atmospheric parameters of three light bridges formed in the same host sunspot by different mechanisms. To accomplish this, we used data taken with the GREGOR Infrared Spectrograph installed at the GREGOR telescope. These data were inverted to infer the physical parameters of the atmosphere where the …
Solar UV bursts are small-scale features that exhibit intermittent brightenings that are thought to be due to magnetic reconnection. They are observed abundantly in the chromosphere and transition region, in particular in active regions. We investigate in detail a UV burst related to a magnetic feature that is advected by the moat flow from a sunspot towards a pore. The moving feature is parasitic in that its magnetic polarity is opposite to that of the spot and the pore. We used UV spectroscopic and slit-jaw observations from the IRIS to identify and study chromospheric and transition region …
We present high-resolution and multi-line observations of a C2-class solar flare, occurred in NOAA AR 12740 on May 6, 2019. The rise, peak and decay phases of the flare were recorded continuously and quasi-simultaneously in the Ca II K line with the CHROMIS instrument, the Ca II 8542 and Fe I 6173 Ålines with the CRISP instrument at the SST. The observations in the chromospheric Ca II lines exhibit intense brightening near the flare footpoints. At these locations, a non-LTE inversion code was employed to infer the temperature, magnetic field, line-of-sight (LOS) velocity and microturbulent vel…
Solar photospheric spectrum microvariability III. Radial velocities and line profiles in magnetic active-region granulation
Lund University（隆德大学）；Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Landessternwarte（海德堡大学天文中心，州立天文台）；Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam（波茨坦阿诺德·爱因斯坦天体物理研究所）；Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias（加那利群岛天体物理学研究所）；Texas Advanced Computing Center, The University of Texas at Austin（德克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校高级计算中心）
