Planet yield calculations may be used to inform the target selection strategy and science operations of space observatories. Forthcoming and proposed NASA missions, such as the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), the Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission (HabEx), and the Large UV/Optical/IR Surveyor (LUVOIR), are expected to be equipped with sensitive coronagraphs and/or starshades. We are developing a suite of numerical simulations to quantify the extent to which ground-based radial velocity (RV) surveys could boost the detection efficiency of direct imaging missions. In this paper, we discuss the first step in the process of estimating planet yields: generating synthetic planetary systems consistent with observed occurrence rates from multiple detection methods. In an attempt to self-consistently populate stars with orbiting planets, it is found that naive extrapolation of occurrence rates (mass, semi-major axis) results in an unrealistically large number-density of Neptune-mass planets beyond the ice-line ($a \gtrsim 5$au), causing dynamic interactions that would destabilize orbits. We impose a stability criterion for multi-planet systems based on mutual Hill radii separation. Considering the influence of compact configurations containing Jovian-mass and Neptune-mass planets results in a marked suppression in the number of terrestrial planets that can exist at large radii. This result has a pronounced impact on planet yield calculations particularly in regions accessible to high-contrast imaging and microlensing. The dynamically compact configurations and occurrence rates that we develop may be incorporated as input into joint RV and direct imaging yield calculations to place meaningful limits on the number of detectable planets with future missions.
We present results from a data challenge posed to the radial velocity (RV) community: namely, to quantify the Bayesian "evidence" for n={0,1,2,3} planets in a set of synthetically generated RV datasets containing a range of planet signals. Participating teams were provided the same likelihood function and set of priors to use in their analysis. They applied a variety of methods to estimate Z, the marginal likelihood for each n-planet model, including cross-validation, the Laplace approximation, importance sampling, and nested sampling. We found the dispersion in Z across different methods grew…
Transiting exoplanet parameter estimation from time-series photometry and Doppler spectroscopy is fundamental to study planets' internal structures and compositions. Here we present the code pyaneti, a powerful and user-friendly software suite to perform multi-planet radial velocity and transit data fitting. The code uses a Bayesian approach combined with an MCMC sampling to estimate the parameters of planetary systems. We combine the numerical efficiency of FORTRAN, the versatility of PYTHON, and the parallelization of OpenMP to make pyaneti a fast and easy to use code. The package is freely …
Motivated by recent discussions, both in private and in the literature, we use a Monte Carlo simulation of planetary systems to investigate sources of bias in determining the mass-radius distribution of exoplanets for the two primary techniques used to measure planetary masses---Radial Velocities (RVs) and Transit Timing Variations (TTVs). We assert that mass measurements derived from these two methods are comparably reliable---as the physics underlying their respective signals is well understood. Nevertheless, their sensitivity to planet mass varies with the properties of the planets themselv…
We perform a detailed analysis of the latest HARPS and Keck radial velocity data for the planet-hosting red dwarf GJ581, which attracted a lot of attention in recent time. We show that these data contain important correlated noise component ("red noise") with the correlation timescale of the order of 10 days. This red noise imposes a lot of misleading effects while we work in the traditional white-noise model. To eliminate these misleading effects, we propose a maximum-likelihood algorithm equipped by an extended model of the noise structure. We treat the red noise as a Gaussian random process…
PlanetPack, initially released in 2013, is a command-line software aimed to facilitate exoplanets detection, characterization, and basic dynamical $N$-body simulations. This paper presents the third major release of PlanetPack that incorporates multiple improvements in comparison to the legacy versions. The major ones include: (i) modelling noise by Gaussian processes that in addition to the classic white noise may optionally include multiple components of the red noise, modulated noise, quasiperiodic noise (to be added soon in minor subversions of the 3.x series); (ii) an improved pipeline fo…
The multi-planetary system HD128311 hosts at least two planets. Its dynamical formation history has been studied extensively in the literature. We reanalyse the latest radial velocity data for this system with the affine-invariant Markov chain Monte Carlo sampler EMCEE. Using the high order integrator IAS15, we perform a fully dynamical fit, allowing the planets to interact during the sampling process. A stability analysis using the MEGNO indicator reveals that the system is located in a stable island of the parameter space. In contrast to a previous study, we find that the system is locked in…
To date, the radial velocity (RV) method has been one of the most productive techniques for detecting and confirming extrasolar planetary candidates. Unfortunately, stellar activity can induce RV variations which can drown out or even mimic planetary signals - and it is notoriously difficult to model and thus mitigate the effects of these activity-induced nuisance signals. This is expected to be a major obstacle to using next-generation spectrographs to detect lower mass planets, planets with longer periods, and planets around more active stars. Enter Gaussian processes (GPs) which, we note, h…
No planets exist inside the orbit of Mercury and the terrestrial planets of the solar system exhibit a localized configuration. According to thermal structure calculation of protoplanetary disks, a silicate condensation line (~ 1300 K) is located around 0.1 au from the Sun except for the early phase of disk evolution, and planetesimals could have formed inside the orbit of Mercury. A recent study of disk evolution that includes magnetically driven disk winds showed that the gas disk obtains a positive surface density slope inside ~ 1 au from the central star. In a region with positive midplane…
Stellar activity can induce signals in the radial velocities of stars, complicating the detection of orbiting low-mass planets. We present a method to determine the number of planetary signals present in radial-velocity datasets of active stars, using only radial-velocity observations. Instead of considering separate fits with different number of planets, we use a birth-death Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm to infer the posterior distribution for the number of planets in a single run. In a natural way, the marginal distributions for the orbital parameters of all planets are also inferred. T…
We present PlanetPack, a new software tool that we developed to facilitate and standardize the advanced analysis of radial velocity (RV) data for the goal of exoplanets detection, characterization, and basic dynamical $N$-body simulations. PlanetPack is a command-line interpreter, that can run either in an interactive mode or in a batch mode of automatic script interpretation. Its major abilities include: (i) Advanced RV curve fitting with the proper maximum-likelihood treatment of unknown RV jitter; (ii) User-friendly multi-Keplerian as well as Newtonian $N$-body RV fits; (iii) Use of more ef…
Stars in young nearby associations are the only targets allowing giant planet searches at all separations in the near future, by coupling indirect techniques such as radial velocity and deep imaging. These stars are first priorities targets for the forthcoming planets imagers on 10-m class telescopes. Young stars rotate more rapidly and are more active than their older counterparts. Both effects can limit the capability to detect planets using RV. We wish to explore the planet detection capabilities of a representative sample of stars in close and young associations with radial velocity data a…
The study of multiple extrasolar planetary systems has the opportunity to obtain constraints for the planetary masses and orbital inclinations via the detection of mutual perturbations. The analysis of precise radial velocity measurements might reveal these planet-planet interactions and yields a more accurate view of such planetary systems. Like in the generic data modelling problems, a fit to radial velocity data series has a set of unknown parameters of which parametric derivatives have to be known by both the regression methods and the estimations for the uncertainties. In this paper an al…
As exoplanetary science matures into its third decade, we are increasingly offered the possibility of pre existing, archival observations for newly detected candidates. This is particularly poignant for the TESS mission, whose survey spans bright, nearby dwarf stars in both hemispheres, which are precisely the types of sources targeted by previous radial velocity (RV) surveys. On this basis, we investigated whether any of the TESS Objects of Interest (TOIs) coincided with such observations, from which we find 18 single planet candidate systems. Of these, one exhibits an RV signature that has t…
We aim to demonstrate the efficiency of a Bayesian approach in analysing radial velocity data by reanalysing a set of radial velocity measurements. We present Bayesian analysis of a recently published set of radial velocity measurements known to contain the signal of one extrasolar planetary candidate, namely, HD 11506. The analysis is conducted using the Markov chain Monte Carlo method and the resulting distributions of orbital parameters are tested by performing direct integration of randomly selected samples with the Bulirsch-Stoer method. The magnitude of the stellar radial velocity variab…
We consider the effect of planetary spin on the planetary radial velocity (PRV) in dayside spectra of exoplanets. To understand the spin effect qualitatively, we derive an analytic formula of the intensity-weighted radial velocity from planetary surface on the following assumptions: 1) constant and solid rotation without precession, 2) stable and uniform distribution of molecules/atoms, 3) emission models from dayside hemisphere, and 4) a circular orbit. On these assumptions, we find that the curve of the PRV is distorted by the planetary spin and this anomaly is characterized by spin radial v…
BEBOP is a radial-velocity survey that monitors a sample of single-lined eclipsing binaries, in search of circumbinary planets by using high-resolution spectrographs. Here, we describe and test the methods we use to identify planetary signals within the BEBOP data, and establish how we quantify our sensitivity to circumbinary planets by producing detection limits. This process is made easier and more robust by using a diffusive nested sampler. In the process of testing our methods, we notice that contrary to popular wisdom, assuming circular orbits in calculating detection limits for a radial …
Several celestial bodies in co-orbital configurations exist in the solar system. However, co-orbital exoplanets have not yet been discovered. This lack may result from a degeneracy between the signal induced by co-orbital planets and other orbital configurations. Here we determine a criterion for the detectability of quasi-circular co-orbital planets and develop a demodulation method to bring out their signature from the observational data. We show that the precision required to identify a pair of co-orbital planets depends only on the libration amplitude and on the planet's mass ratio. We app…
Transit and radial velocity surveys have deeply explored the population of extrasolar giant planets, with hundreds of objects detected to date. All these detections allow to understand their physical properties and to constrain their formation, migration, and evolution mechanism. In this chapter, the observed properties of these planets are presented along with the various populations identified in the data. The occurrence rates of giant exoplanets, as observed in different stellar environment by various surveys are also reviewed and compared. Finally, the presence and properties of the giant …
To date, well over a thousand planets have been discovered orbiting other stars, hundreds of them in multi-planet systems. Most of these exoplanets have been detected by either the transit method or the radial velocity method, rather than by other methods such as astrometry or direct imaging. Both the radial velocity and astrometric methods rely upon the reflex motion of the parent star induced by the gravitational attraction of its planets. However, this reflex motion is subject to misinterpretation when a star has two or more planets with the same orbital period. Such co-orbital planets may …
We have been monitoring 373 very bright (V < 6 mag) G and K giants with high precision optical Doppler spectroscopy for more than a decade at Lick Observatory. Our goal was to discover planetary companions around those stars and to better understand planet formation and evolution around intermediate-mass stars. However, in principle, long-term, g-mode nonradial stellar pulsations or rotating stellar features, such as spots, could effectively mimic a planetary signal in the radial velocity data. Our goal is to compare optical and infrared radial velocities for those stars with periodic radial v…
A number of giant planet pairs discovered by the radial velocity method with period ratios $\lesssim 2$ may reside in mean motion resonances. Convergent orbital migration and resonant capture at the time of formation would naturally explain the present-day resonant orbital configurations of these systems. Planets that experience smooth migration and eccentricity damping forces due to a proto-planetary disk should not only capture into mean motion resonances but also end up in a specific dynamical configuration within the resonance, sometimes referred to as apsidal corotation resonance (ACR). H…
We present preliminary results of the first and on-going radial velocity survey for circumbinary planets. With a novel radial velocity technique employing an iodine absorption cell we achieve an unprecedented RV precision of up to 2 m/s for double-lined binary stars. The high resolution spectra collected with the Keck I/Hires, TNG/Sarg and Shane/CAT/Hamspec telescopes/spectrographs over the years 2003-2008 allow us to derive RVs and compute planet detection limits for ten double-lined binary stars. For this initial sample of targets, we can rule out planets on dynamically stable orbits with ma…
The Characterizing Exoplanets Satellite (CHEOPS) mission is planned for launch next year with a major objective being to search for transits of known RV planets, particularly those orbiting bright stars. Since the radial velocity method is only sensitive to planetary mass, the radii, transit depths and transit signal-to-noise values of each RV planet are, a-priori, unknown. Using an empirically calibrated probabilistic mass-radius relation, forecaster (Chen & Kipping 2017a), we address this by predicting a catalog of homogeneous credible intervals for these three keys terms for 468 planets dis…
Having discovered that Earth-sized planets are common, we are now embarking on a journey to determine if Earth-like planets are also common. Finding Earth-like planets is one of the most compelling endeavors of the 21st century - leading us toward finally answering the question: Are we alone? To achieve this forward-looking goal, we must determine the masses of the planets; the sizes of the planets, by themselves, are not sufficient for the determination of the bulk and atmospheric compositions. Masses, coupled with the radii, are crucial constraints on the bulk composition and interior struct…
The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite will conduct a 2-year long wide-field survey searching for transiting planets around bright stars. Many TESS discoveries will be amenable to mass characterization via ground-based radial velocity measurements with any of a growing suite of existing and anticipated velocimeters in the optical and near-infrared. In this study we present an analytical formalism to compute the number of radial velocity measurements---and hence the total observing time---required to characterize RV planet masses with the inclusion of either a white or correlated noise activ…
We present results of radial-velocity follow-up observations for the two Kepler evolved stars Kepler-91 (KOI-2133) and KOI-1894, which had been announced as candidates to host transiting giant planets, with the Subaru 8.2m telescope and the High Dispersion Spectrograph (HDS). By global modeling of the high-precision radial-velocity data taken with Subaru/HDS and photometric ones taken by Kepler mission taking account of orbital brightness modulations (ellipsoidal variations, reflected/emitted light, etc.) of the host stars, we independently confirmed that Kepler-91 hosts a transiting planet wi…
Planetary rotation rates and obliquities provide information regarding the history of planet formation, but have not yet been measured for evolved extrasolar planets. Here we investigate the theoretical and observational perspective of the Rossiter-McLauglin effect during secondary eclipse (RMse) ingress and egress for transiting exoplanets. Near secondary eclipse, when the planet passes behind the parent star, the star sequentially obscures light from the approaching and receding parts of the rotating planetary surface. The temporal block of light emerging from the approaching (blue-shifted) …
Co-orbital planets have not yet been discovered, although they constitute a frequent by-product of planetary formation and evolution models. This lack may be due to observational biases, since the main detection methods are unable to spot co-orbital companions when they are small or near the Lagrangian equilibrium points. However, for a system with one known transiting planet (with mass $m_1$), we can detect a co-orbital companion (with mass $m_2$) by combining the time of mid-transit with the radial-velocity data of the star. Here, we propose a simple method that allows the detection of co-or…
We report the detection of two new long-period giant planets orbiting the stars HD 95872 and HD 162004 (psi1 Draconis B) by the McDonald Observatory planet search. The planet HD 95872b has a minimum mass of 4.6 M_Jup and an orbital semi-major axis of 5.2 AU. The giant planet psi1 Dra Bb has a minimum mass of 1.5 M_Jup and an orbital semi-major axis of 4.4 AU. Both of these planets qualify as Jupiter analogs. These results are based on over one and a half decades of precise radial velocity measurements collected by our program using the McDonald Observatory Tull Coude spectrograph at the 2.7 m …
Variations related to stellar activity and correlated noise can prevent the detections of low-amplitude signals in radial velocity data if not accounted for. This can be seen as the greatest obstacle in detecting Earth-like planets orbiting nearby stars with Doppler spectroscopy regardless of developments in instrumentation and rapidly accumulating amounts of data. We use a statistical model that is not sensitive to aperiodic and/or quasiperiodic variability of stellar origin. We demonstrate the performance of our model by re-analysing the radial velocities of the moderately active star CoRoT-…
Many multiple-planet systems have been found by the Kepler transit survey and various radial velocity (RV) surveys. Kepler planets show an asymmetric feature, namely, there are small but significant deficits/excesses of planet pairs with orbital period spacing slightly narrow/wide of the exact resonance, particularly near the first order mean motion resonance (MMR), such as 2:1 and 3:2 MMR. Similarly, if not exactly the same, an asymmetric feature (pileup wide of 2:1 MMR) is also seen in RV planets, but only for massive ones. We analytically and numerically study planets' orbital evolutions ne…
Discovering an Earth-like exoplanet in habitable zone is an important milestone for astronomers in search of extra-terrestrial life. While the radial velocity (RV) technique remains one the most powerful tools in detecting and characterizing exo-planetary sys- tems, we calculate the uncertainties in precision RV measurements considering stellar spectral quality factors, RV calibration sources, stellar noise and telluric contamination in different observational bandpasses and for different spectral types. We predict the optimal observational bandpass for different spectral types using the RV te…
For the 451 stars of the HARPS high precision program, we study correlations between the radial-velocity (RV) variation and other parameters of the Cross Correlated Function (CCF). After a careful target selection, we found a very good correlation between the slope of the RV-activity index (log(R'HK) correlation and the Teff for dwarf stars. This correlation allow us to correct RV from magnetic cycles given the activity index and the Teff.
We report new radial velocities of the TrES-4 transiting planetary system, including observations of a full transit, with the High Dispersion Spectrograph of the Subaru 8.2m telescope. Modeling of the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect indicates that TrES-4b has closely aligned orbital and stellar spin axes, with $λ= 6.3^{\circ} \pm 4.7^{\circ}$. The close spin-orbit alignment angle of TrES-4b seems to argue against a migration history involving planet-planet scattering or Kozai cycles, although there are two nearby faint stars that could be binary companion candidates. Comparison of our out-of-transi…
Future generations of precise radial velocity (RV) surveys aim to achieve sensitivity sufficient to detect Earth mass planets orbiting in their stars' habitable zones. A major obstacle to this goal is astrophysical radial velocity noise caused by active areas moving across the stellar limb as a star rotates. In this paper, we quantify how stellar activity impacts exoplanet detection with radial velocities as a function of orbital and stellar rotational periods. We perform data-driven simulations of how stellar rotation affects planet detectability and compile and present relations for the typi…
Searches for planets around massive stars are essential for developing general understanding of planet formation and evolution of the planetary systems. The main objective of the Pennsylvania - Torun Planet Search is detection of planets around G-K subgiants and giants through precision radial velocity (RV) measurements with iodine absorption cell using HET HRS spectrograph. However, the long period radial velocity variations of red giants may also have other than planetary nature (e.g. a non-radial pulsations or rotational modulation in presence of starspots). In this work we present bisector…
We report radial-velocity search for short-period planets in the Pleiades open cluster. We observed 30 Pleiades member stars at the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (OAO) with High Dispersion Echelle Spectrograph (HIDES). To evaluate and mitigate the effects of stellar activity on radial-velocity measurements, we computed four activity indicators (FWHM, $V_{\rm span}$, $W_{\rm span}$ and $S_{\rm Hα}$). Among our sample, no short-period planet candidates were detected. Stellar intrinsic RV jitter was estimated to be ${\rm 52\ m\,s^{-1}}$, ${\rm 128\ m\,s^{-1}}$ and ${\rm 173\ m\,s^{-1}}$ for s…
Radial-velocity variations of the K giant star Aldebaran ($α$ Tau) were first reported in the early 1990s. After subsequent analyses, the radial-velocity variability with a period of $\sim 629\,\mathrm{d}$ has recently been interpreted as caused by a planet of several Jovian masses. We want to further investigate the hypothesis of an extrasolar planet around Aldebaran. We combine 165 new radial-velocity measurements from Lick Observatory with seven already published data sets comprising 373 radial-velocity measurements. We perform statistical analyses and investigate whether a Keplerian model …
Data from the TESS mission will be used to discover hundreds of small planets amenable to radial velocity (RV) followup. Often, RV observations are obtained until a particular fractional precision on the inferred mass is achieved. I show that when the decision to stop collecting RV observations depends on the mass inferred from already-collected data, this will bias mass measurements upward, particularly when the fixed length of RV observing campaigns is considered. I suggest that observing teams should determine their observing strategy for each star before any data are collected, and all sto…
Kepler-91b is a rare example of a transiting hot Jupiter around a red giant star, providing the possibility to study the formation and composition of hot Jupiters under different conditions compared to main-sequence stars. However, the planetary nature of Kepler-91b, which was confirmed using phase-curve variations by Lillo-Box et al., was recently called into question based on a re-analysis of Kepler data. We have obtained ground-based radial velocity observations from the Hobby-Eberly Telescope and unambiguously confirm the planetary nature of Kepler-91b by simultaneously modeling the Kepler…
Planet multiplicities are useful in constraining the formation and evolution of planetary systems but usually difficult to constrain observationally. Here, we develop a general method that can properly take into account the survey incompleteness and recover the intrinsic planet multiplicity distribution. We then apply it to the radial velocity (RV) planet sample from the California Legacy Survey (CLS). Within the $1\,$au ($10\,$au) region, we find $21 \pm 4\%$ ($19.2 \pm 2.8\%$) of Sun-like stars host planets with masses above $10\,M_\oplus$ ($0.3\,M_{\rm J}$), about 30\% (40\%) of which are m…
The object transiting the star Kepler-91 was recently assessed as being of planetary nature. The confirmation was achieved by analysing the light-curve modulations observed in the Kepler data. However, quasi-simultaneous studies claimed a self-luminous nature for this object, thus rejecting it as a planet. In this work, we apply an {independent} approach to confirm the planetary mass of Kepler-91b by using multi-epoch high-resolution spectroscopy obtained with the Calar Alto Fiber-fed Echelle spectrograph (CAFE). We obtain the physical and orbital parameters with the radial velocity technique.…
We report the detection of radial velocity variations in nine evolved G- and K-type giant stars. The observations were conducted at Okayama Astrophysical Observatory. Planets or planet candidates can best explain these regular variations. However, a coincidence of near 280-day variability among five of them prevents us from fully ruling out stellar origins for some of the variations, since all nine stars behave similarly in stellar properties. In the planet hypotheses to the RV variations, the planets (including one candidate) may survive close to the boundary of the so-called "planet desert" …
Stellar signals are the main limitation for precise radial-velocity (RV) measurements. These signals arise from the photosphere of the stars. The m/s perturbation created by these signals prevents the detection and mass characterization of small-mass planetary candidates such as Earth-twins. Several methods have been proposed to mitigate stellar signals in RV measurements. However, without precisely knowing the stellar and planetary signals in real observations, it is extremely difficult to test the efficiency of these methods. The goal of the RV fitting challenge is to generate simulated RV d…
The two most common techniques for measuring planetary masses - the radial velocity (RV) and the transit timing variations (TTVs) techniques - have been observed to yield systematically different masses for planets of similar radii. Following Steffen (2016), we consider the effects of the observational biases of the two methods as a possible cause for this difference. We find that at short orbital periods ($P<11$ day), the two methods produce statistically similar results, whereas at long periods ($P>11$ day) the RV masses are systematically higher than the TTV ones. We suggest that this is co…
Radial velocity measurements of stellar reflex motion have revealed many extrasolar planets, but gaps in the observations produce aliases, spurious frequencies that are frequently confused with the planets' orbital frequencies. In the case of Gl 581 d, the distinction between an alias and the true frequency was the distinction between a frozen, dead planet and a planet possibly hospitable to life (Udry et al. 2007; Mayor et al. 2009). To improve the characterization of planetary systems, we describe how aliases originate and present a new approach for distinguishing between orbital frequencies…
(abridged) In the frame of the search for extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs around early-type main-sequence stars, we present the results obtained on the early F-type star Theta Cygni. Elodie and Sophie at OHP were used to obtain the spectra. Our dedicated radial-velocity measurement method was used to monitor the star's radial velocities over five years. We also use complementary, high angular resolution and high-contrast images taken with PUEO at CFHT. We show that Theta Cygni radial velocities are quasi-periodically variable, with a ~150-day period. These variations are not due to the ~0.…
Context. Following the first discovery of a planet orbiting a giant star in 2002, we started the CORALIE radial-velocity search for companions around evolved stars (CASCADES). We present the observations of three stars conducted at the 1.2 m Leonard Euler Swiss telescope at La Silla Observatory, Chile, using the CORALIE spectrograph. Aims. We aim to detect planetary companions to intermediate-mass G- and K- type evolved stars and perform a statistical analysis of this population. We searched for new planetary systems around the stars HD22532 (TIC 200851704), HD64121 (TIC 264770836), and HD6912…
When two planets are born in a protoplanetary disk, they may enter into a mean-motion resonance as a consequence of the convergent planetary migration. The formation of mean-motion resonances is important for understanding how the planetary systems are shaped in the disk environments. Motivated by recent progress in the comprehension of the migration of partial gap-opening planets, we have investigated the orbital evolution of the planet pairs in a wide range of masses and disk properties with the aim to find out when the resonance capture is likely to happen. Using the formula for the migrati…
The detection of Earth-like planets, exocomets or Kuiper belts show that the different components found in the solar system should also be present in other planetary systems. Trojans are one of these components and can be considered fossils of the first stages in the life of planetary systems. Their detection in extrasolar systems would open a new scientific window to investigate formation and migration processes. In this context, the main goal of the TROY project is to detect exotrojans for the first time and to measure their occurrence rate (eta-Trojan). In this first paper, we describe the …
We present an improved version of SOAP (Boisse et al. 2012) named "SOAP-T", which can generate the radial velocity variations and light-curves for systems consisting of a rotating spotted star with a transiting planet. This tool can be used to study the anomalies inside transit light-curves and the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect, to better constrain the orbital configuration and properties of planetary systems and active zones of their host stars. Tests of the code are presented to illustrate its performance and to validate its capability when compared with analytical models and real data. Finally…
