As a promising technology in the Internet of Underwater Things, underwater sensor networks have drawn a widespread attention from both academia and industry. However, designing a routing protocol for underwater sensor networks is a great challenge due to high energy consumption and large latency in the underwater environment. This paper proposes a Q-learning-based localization-free anypath routing (QLFR) protocol to prolong the lifetime as well as reduce the end-to-end delay for underwater sensor networks. Aiming at optimal routing policies, the Q-value is calculated by jointly considering the residual energy and depth information of sensor nodes throughout the routing process. More specifically, we define two reward functions (i.e., depth-related and energy-related rewards) for Q-learning with the objective of reducing latency and extending network lifetime. In addition, a new holding time mechanism for packet forwarding is designed according to the priority of forwarding candidate nodes. Furthermore, a mathematical analysis is presented to analyze the performance of the proposed routing protocol. Extensive simulation results demonstrate the superiority performance of the proposed routing protocol in terms of the end-to-end delay and the network lifetime.
In this paper we present a new routing paradigm that generalizes opportunistic routing for wireless multihop networks. In multirate anypath routing, each node uses both a set of next hops and a selected transmission rate to reach a destination. Using this rate, a packet is broadcast to the nodes in the set and one of them forwards the packet on to the destination. To date, there has been no theory capable of jointly optimizing both the set of next hops and the transmission rate used by each node. We solve this by introducing two polynomial-time routing algorithms and provide the proof of their…
In this paper, we present a new routing paradigm that generalizes opportunistic routing in wireless mesh networks. In multirate anypath routing, each node uses both a set of next hops and a selected transmission rate to reach a destination. Using this rate, a packet is broadcast to the nodes in the set and one of them forwards the packet on to the destination. To date, there is no theory capable of jointly optimizing both the set of next hops and the transmission rate used by each node. We bridge this gap by introducing a polynomial-time algorithm to this problem and provide the proof of its o…
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSN), similar to the terrestrial sensor networks, have different challenges such as limited bandwidth, low battery power, defective underwater channels, and high variable propagation delay. A crucial problem in UWSN is finding an efficient route between a source and a destination. Consequently, great efforts have been made for designing efficient protocols while considering the unique characteristics of underwater communication. Several routing protocols are proposed for this issue and can be classified into geographic and non-geographic routing protocols.…
The underwater acoustic channel is one of the most challenging communication channels. Due to periodical tidal and daily climatic variation, underwater noise is periodically fluctuating, which result in the periodical changing of acoustic channel quality in long-term. Also, time-variant channel quality leads to routing failure. Routing protocols with acoustic channel estimation, namely underwater channel-aware routing protocols are recently proposed to maintain the routing performance. However, channel estimation algorithms for these routing protocols are mostly linear and rarely consider peri…
Underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) is becoming an attractive technology for underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) since it offers high-speed communication links. Although UOWC overcomes the drawbacks of acoustic and radio frequency communication channels such as high latency and low data rate, yet, it has its own limitations. One of the major limitations of UOWC is its limited transmission range which demands to develop a multi-hop network with efficient routing protocols. Currently, the routing protocols for UOWSNs are centralized having high complexity and large end-to-en…
Vel Tech University（Vel Tech大学）；Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur（印度理工学院卡拉格普尔分校）
In underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASN), energy-reliable data transmission is a challenging task. This is due to acoustic transmission disturbances caused by excessive noise, exceptionally long propagation delays, a high bit error rate, limited bandwidth capability, and interference. One of the most important issues of UWASN for research is how to extend the life span of data transmission. Data transfer from a source node to a destination node in UWASN is a complicated topic for researchers. Many routing algorithms, such as vector base forwarding and depth base routing, have been develo…
Internet of underwater things (IoUT) is a technological revolution that could mark a new era for scientific, industrial, and military underwater applications. To mitigate the hostile underwater channel characteristics, this paper hybridizes underwater acoustic and optical wireless communications to achieve a ubiquitous control and high-speed low-latency networking performance, respectively. Since underwater optical wireless communications (UOWC) suffers from limited range, it requires effective multi-hop routing solutions. In this regard, we propose a Sector-based Opportunistic Routing (SectOR…
Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) are often used for environmental and industrial sensing in undersea/ocean space, therefore, these networks are also named underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs). Underwater sensor networks are different from other sensor networks due to the acoustic channel used in their physical layer, thus we should discuss about the specific features of these underwater networks such as acoustic channel modeling and protocol design for different layers of open system interconnection (OSI) model. Each node of these networks as a sensor needs to exchange data w…
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks due to peculiar characteristics of low bandwidth, high latency, limited energy, node float mobility and high error probability. These features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. Several routing protocols have been developed in recent years for these networks. One of the major difficulties in comparison and validation of the performance of these proposals is the lack of a common standard to model the acoustic propagation in the harsh underwater environment. In this paper …
A sensor network is one of the critical networks that is based on hardware components as well the energy parameters. Because of this, such network requires the optimization in all kind communication to improve the network life. In case of underwater sensor network, the criticality of network is also increased because of the random floating movement of the nodes. In this work, a composition of the multicast or broadcast communication is presented by the generation of aggregative path. The presented work is about to define a new chain based aggregative routing approach to provide the effective c…
While acoustic communications have been considered the prominent technology to communicate under water for several years, other technologies are being developed based, e.g., on optical and radio-frequency electro-magnetic waves. Each technology has its own advantages and drawbacks: for example, acoustic signals achieve long communication ranges at order-of-kbit/s bit rate, whereas optical signals offer order-of-Mbit/s transmission rates but only over short transmitter--receiver distances. Such a technological diversity can be leveraged by multi-modal systems, which integrate different technolo…
Routing for low latency underwater acoustic network-communication is investigated. The application is monitoring of ice-threats to offshore operations in the Arctic - to provide warnings that enable operators to react to such threats. The scenario produces relatively high traffic load, and the network should favour low delay and adequate reliability rather than energy usage minimization. The ICRP (Information-Carrying based Routing Protocol), originally proposed by Wei Liang et al. in 2007, is chosen as basis. ICRP obtains unicast routing paths by sending data payload as broadcast packets when…
We use real measurements of the underwater channel to simulate a whole underwater RF wireless sensor networks, including propagation impairments (e.g., noise, interference), radio hardware (e.g., modulation scheme, bandwidth, transmit power), hardware limitations (e.g., clock drift, transmission buffer) and complete MAC and routing protocols. The results should be useful for designing centralized and distributed algorithms for applications like monitoring, event detection, localization and aid to navigation. We also explain the changes that have to be done to Castalia in order to perform the s…
This paper addresses poor cluster formation and frequent Cluster Head (CH) failure issues of underwater sensor networks by proposing an energy-efficient hierarchical topology-aware clustering routing (EEHTAC) protocol. In this paper, fault-tolerant backup clustering (FTBC) algorithms and multi-parameter cluster formation (MPCF) model were developed for the EEHTAC operation. The MPCF model tackles the issue of poor cluster formation performance by integrating multiple parameters to achieve effective clustering process. The FTBC algorithms tackle the issue of frequent CH failures to avoid interr…
Underwater wireless communications can be carried out through acoustic, radio frequency (RF), and optical waves. Compared to its bandwidth limited acoustic and RF counterparts, underwater optical wireless communications (UOWCs) can support higher data rates at low latency levels. However, severe aquatic channel conditions (e.g., absorption, scattering, turbulence, etc.) pose great challenges for UOWCs and significantly reduce the attainable communication ranges, which necessitates efficient networking and localization solutions. Therefore, we provide a comprehensive survey on the challenges, a…
In dense underwater sensor networks (UWSN), the major confronts are high error probability, incessant variation in topology of sensor nodes, and much energy consumption for data transmission. However, there are some remarkable applications of UWSN such as management of seabed and oil reservoirs, exploration of deep sea situation and prevention of aqueous disasters. In order to accomplish these applications, ignorance of the limitations of acoustic communications such as high delay and low bandwidth is not feasible. In this paper, we propose Adaptive mobility of Courier nodes in Threshold-optim…
Under Water Sensor Networks (UWSN) have different characteristics than terrestrial sensor networks, so routing protocols developed for terrestrial networks are not suitable for UWSN. Underwater routing is comprehended by the underlying network architecture and design of sensor nodes. Therefore, efficient routing protocols need to be developed for UWSNs. We present a Routing scheme based on routing factor (Rf) which is a function of distance and residual energy. We also define Energy Scale Value to rationalize the available energy to take heterogeneity in energies into account. The algorithm ro…
Pressure and temperature profile are key data for safe production in oil and gas wells. In this paper, a bucket-brigade inspired sensor network protocol is proposed which can be used to extract sensed data profile from the nanoscale up to kilometer long structures. The PHY/MAC layers are discussed. This protocol is best suited for low data rate exchanges in small fixed-size packets, named buckets, transmitted as time-domain bursts among high-precision smart sensors deployed as a queue. There is only one coordinator, which is not directly accessible by most of the sensor nodes. The coordinator …
