Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM), also so-called Solid State Photomultipliers (SSPM), are based on Geiger mode avalanche breakdown limited by strong negative feedback. SSPM can detect and resolve single photons due to high gain and ultra-low excess noise of avalanche multiplication in this mode. Crosstalk and afterpulsing processes associated with the high gain introduce specific excess noise and deteriorate photon number resolution of the SSPM. Probabilistic features of these processes are widely studied because of its high importance for the SSPM design, characterization, optimization and application, but the process modeling is mostly based on Monte Carlo simulations and numerical methods. In this study, crosstalk is considered to be a branching Poisson process, and analytical models of probability distribution and excess noise factor (ENF) of SSPM signals based on the Borel distribution as an advance on the geometric distribution models are presented and discussed. The models are found to be in a good agreement with the experimental probability distributions for dark counts and a few photon spectrums in a wide range of fired pixels number as well as with observed super-linear behavior of crosstalk ENF.
An experimental method to characterize the crosstalk and afterpulsing in silicon photomultipliers has been developed and applied to two detectors fabricated by Hamamatsu. An analytical model of optical crosstalk that we presented in a previous publication has been compared with new measurements, confirming our results. Progresses on a statistical model to describe afterpulsing and delayed crosstalk are also shown and compared with preliminary experimental data.
Optical crosstalk seriously limits the photon-counting resolution of silicon photomultipliers. In this work, realistic analytical models to describe the crosstalk effects on the response of these photodetectors are presented and compared with experimental data. The proposed models are based on the hypothesis that each pixel of the array has a finite number of available neighboring pixels to excite via crosstalk. Dead-time effects and geometrical aspects of the propagation of crosstalk between neighbors are taken into account in the models for different neighborhood configurations. Simple expre…
The crosstalk and afterpulsing in Hamamatsu silicon photomultipliers, called Multi-Pixel Photon Counters (MPPCs), have been studied in depth. Several components of the correlated noise have been identified according to their different possible causes and their effects on the signal. In particular, we have distinguished between prompt and delayed crosstalk as well as between trap-assisted and hole-induced afterpulsing. The prompt crosstalk has been characterized through the pulse amplitude spectrum measured at dark conditions. The newest MPPC series, which incorporate isolating trenches between…
We propose and study a method of optical crosstalk suppression for silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) using optical filters. We demonstrate that attaching absorptive visible bandpass filters to the SiPM can substantially reduce the optical crosstalk. Measurements suggest that the absorption of near infrared light is important to achieve this suppression. The proposed technique can be easily applied to suppress the optical crosstalk in SiPMs in cases where filtering near infrared light is compatible with the application.
The application of silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) technology for weak-light detection at a single photon level has expanded thanks to its better photon detection efficiency in comparison to a conventional photomultiplier tube (PMT). SiPMs with large detection area have recently become commercially available, enabling applications where the photon flux is low both temporarily and spatially. On the other hand, several drawbacks exist in the usage of SiPMs such as a higher dark count rate, many readout channels, slow response time, and optical crosstalk; therefore, users need to carefully conside…
We present characterization results of two silicon photomultipliers; the Hamamatsu LVR-6050-CN and the Ketek PM3325 WB. With our measurements of the bias dependence of the breakdown probability we are able to draw conclusions about the location and spatial extension of the avalanche region. For the KETEK SiPM we find that the avalanche region is located close to the surface. In the Hamamatsu SiPM the high-field region is located $0.5\,μ$m below the surface, while the volume above is depleted almost until the surface. Furthermore, for the Hamamatsu SiPM we find that charge carriers produced by …
We present results of the detailed study of several hundred Hamamatsu H12700 Multianode Photomultiplier Tubes (MaPMTs), characterizing their response to the Cherenkov light photons in the second Ring Imaging Cherenkov detector, a part of the CLAS12 upgrade at Jefferson Lab. The total number of pixels studied was 25536. The single photoelectron spectra were measured for each pixel at different high voltages and light intensities of the laser test setup. Using the same dedicated front-end electronics as in the first RICH detector, the setup allowed us to characterize each pixel's properties such…
We characterized the S14160-3050HS Multi-Pixel Photon Counter (MPPC), a high efficiency, single channel silicon photomultiplier manufactured by Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. All measurements were performed at a room temperature of (23.0 $\pm$ 0.3) $^{\circ}$C. We obtained an I-V curve and used relative derivatives to find a breakdown voltage of 38.88 V. At a 3 V over voltage, we find a dark count rate of 1.08 MHz, crosstalk probability of 21 $\%$, photon detection efficiency of 55 $\%$ at 450 nm, and saturation at 1.0x10$^{11}$ photons per second. The S14160-3050HS MPPC is a candidate detector for …
We report about the optical and electrical characterization of three high efficiency and blue sensitive Silicon photomultipliers from FBK, Hamamatsu, and SensL. Key features of the tested devices when operated at 90% breakdown probability are peak photon detection efficiencies between 40% and 55%, temperature dependencies of gain and PDE that are less than 1%/$^{\circ}$C, dark rates of $\sim$50\,kHz/mm$^{2}$ at room temperature, afterpulsing of about 2%, and direct optical crosstalk between 6% and 20%. The characteristics of all three devices impressively demonstrate how the Silicon-photomulti…
Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) are an excellent candidate for the development of large-area light sensors. Large SiPM-based detectors require low-noise pre-amplifiers to maximize the signal coupling between the sensor and the readout electronics. This article reports on the development of a low-noise transimpedance amplifier sensitive to single-photon signals at cryogenic temperature. The amplifier is used to readout a 1 cm$^{2}$ SiPM with a signal to noise ratio in excess of 40.
Multilayer graded-bandgap avalanche photodiodes (APDs) are the future deterministic photomultipliers, owing to their deterministic amplification with twofold stepwise gain via impact ionization when operated in the staircase regime. Yet, the stepwise impact ionization irregularities worsen as the number of steps increases. These irregularities in impact ionization are the major source of noise in these APDs. These solid-state devices could replace conventional silicon photomultiplier tubes if they are carefully studied and designed. A noise model for multistep staircase APDs, considering equal…
The Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO) is designed for high energy gamma ray and cosmic ray detection. A Water Cherenkov Detector Array which is sensitive to gamma ray showers above a few hundred GeV is proposed to survey gamma ray sources. The WCDA consists of 3600 PhotoMultiplier Tubes (PMT) which collect the Cherenkov light produced by the shower particles in water. Both high precision time and charge measurement are required over a large dynamic range from 1 photo electron (P.E.) to 4000 P.E. Prototype of an analogue front-end Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)…
