Burak Bilki, John Butler, Ed May, Georgios Mavromanolakis, Edwin Norbeck, Jose Repond, David Underwood, Lei Xia, Qingmin Zhang
A small prototype of a finely granulated digital hadron calorimeter with Resistive Plate Chambers as active elements was exposed to positrons of 1 . 16 GeV energy from the Fermilab test beam. The response function, energy resolution, as well as measurements of the shape of electromagnetic showers are presented. The data are compared to a Monte Carlo simulation of the set-up.
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A small prototype of a finely granulated digital hadron calorimeter with Resistive Plate Chambers as active elements was exposed to positive pions of 1 >. 16 GeV energy from the Fermilab test beam. The event selection separates events with mostly non-interacting particles and events with hadronic showers which initiated in the front part of the calorimeter. The data are compared to a Monte Carlo simulation of the set-up. The paper concludes with predictions for the performance of an extended digital hadron calorimeter.
The MAPS prototype of the proposed ALICE Forward Calorimeter (FoCal) is the highest granularity electromagnetic calorimeter, with 39 million pixels of $30 \times 30 μ$m$^{2}$. Particle showers can be studied with unprecedented detail with this prototype. Electromagnetic showers at energies between 2 GeV and 244 GeV have been studied and compared to Geant4 simulations. Simulation models can be tested in more detail than ever before and the differences observed between FoCal data and Geant4 simulations illustrates that improvements in electromagnetic models are still possible.
The CALICE collaboration has constructed highly granular electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeter prototypes to evaluate technologies for the use in detector systems at a future Linear Collider. The hadron calorimeter uses small scintillator cells individually read out with silicon photomultipliers. The system with 7608 channels has been successfully operated in beam tests at DESY, CERN and Fermilab since 2006, and represents the first large scale tests of these devices in high energy physics experiments. The unprecedented granularity of the detector provides detailed information of the proper…
We investigate the effect of longitudinal and transverse calorimeter segmentation on event-by-event software compensation for hadronic showers. To factorize out sampling and electronics effects, events are simulated in which a single charged pion is shot at a homogenous lead glass calorimeter, split into longitudinal and transverse segments of varying size. As an approximation of an optimal reconstruction, a neural network-based energy regression is trained. The architecture is based on blocks of convolutional kernels customized for shower energy regression using local energy densities; biases…
The CALICE collaboration has constructed highly granular electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeter prototypes to evaluate technologies for the use in detector systems at the future International Linear Collider. These calorimeters have been tested extensively in particle beams at CERN and at Fermilab. We present preliminary results of an analysis of hadronic events in the combined system under test at CERN in 2006 and 2007, comprising a SiW ECAL, a scintillator tile HCAL and a scintillator strip tail catcher, the latter two with SiPM readout. The properties of hadronic showers in the HCAL, comp…
The CALICE collaboration has constructed highly granular electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeter prototypes to evaluate technologies for the use in detector systems at the future International Linear Collider. These calorimeters have been tested extensively in particle beams at CERN and at Fermilab. We present analysis results for hadronic events recorded at CERN with a SiW ECAL, a scintillator tile HCAL and a scintillator strip tail catcher, the latter two with SiPM readout, focusing both on the HCAL alone and on the complete calorimeter setup. Particular emphasis is placed on the study of t…
The CALICE collaboration has constructed a highly granular hadronic sampling calorimeter prototype with small scintillator tiles individually read out by silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) to evaluate technologies for the ILC. The imaging capability of the detector allows detailed studies of the substructure of hadronic events, such as the identification of minimum ionizing track segments within the hadronic shower. These track segments are of high quality, so that they can be used for calibration, as an additional tool to Muons and to the built-in LED system used to monitor the SiPMs. These trac…
We explore the fractal nature of particle showers using Monte-Carlo simulation. We define the fractal dimension of showers measured in a high granularity calorimeter designed for a future lepton collider. The shower fractal dimension reveals detailed information of the spatial configuration of the shower. %the information hidden in the details of shower spatial configuration, It is found to be characteristic of the type of interaction and highly sensitive to the nature of the incident particle. Using the shower fractal dimension, we demonstrate a particle identification algorithm that can effi…
Simulations of particle showers in calorimeters are computationally time-consuming, as they have to reproduce both energy depositions and their considerable fluctuations. A new approach to ultra-fast simulations are generative models where all calorimeter energy depositions are generated simultaneously. We use GEANT4 simulations of an electron beam impinging on a multi-layer electromagnetic calorimeter for adversarial training of a generator network and a critic network guided by the Wasserstein distance. The generator is constraint during the training such that the generated showers show the …
The highly granular calorimeter prototypes of the CALICE collaboration have provided large data samples with precise three-dimensional information on hadronic showers with steel and tungsten absorbers and silicon, scintillator and gas detector readout. From these data sets, detailed measurements of the spatial structure, including longitudinal and lateral shower profiles and of the shower substructure and time structure are extracted. Recent analyses have extended these studies to different particle species in calorimeters with scintillator readout and steel and tungsten absorbers, to energies…
The CALICE collaboration has constructed highly granular electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeter prototypes to evaluate technologies for the use in detector systems at a future Linear Collider. The hadron calorimeter uses small scintillator cells individually read out with silicon photomultipliers. The system with 7608 channels has been successfully operated in beam tests at DESY, CERN and Fermilab since 2006, and represents the first large scale tests of these devices in high energy physics experiments. The unprecedented granularity of the detector provides detailed information of the proper…
Application Specific Integrated Circuits, ASICs, similar to those envisaged for the readout electronics of the central calorimeters of detectors for a future lepton collider have been exposed to high-energy electromagnetic showers. A salient feature of these calorimeters is that the readout electronics will be embedded into the calorimeter layers. In this article it is shown that interactions of shower particles in the volume of the readout electronics do not alter the noise pattern of the ASICs. No signal at or above the MIP level has been observed during the exposure. The upper limit at the …
The separation and reconstructions of charged hadron and neutral hadron from their overlapped showers in electromagnetic calorimeter is very important for the reconstructions of some particles with hadronic decays, for example the tau reconstruction in the searches for the Standard Model and supersymmetric Higgs bosons at the LHC. In this paper, a method combining the shower cluster in electromagnetic calorimeter and the parametric formula for hadron showers, was developed to separate the overlapped showers between charged hadron and neutral hadron. Taking the hadronic decay containing one cha…
CaloPointFlow II Generating Calorimeter Showers as Point Clouds
本文提出CaloPointFlow II，通过CDF-Dequantization和DeepSet-Flow改进点云生成，在CaloChallenge数据集II和III上评估，加速量热器簇射模拟。
The CALICE Semi-Digital Hadron Calorimeter technological prototype completed in 2011 is a sampling calorimeter using Glass Resistive Plate Chamber (GRPC) detectors as the active medium. This technology is one of the two options proposed for the hadron calorimeter of the International Large Detector for the International Linear Collider. The prototype was exposed in 2015 to beams of muons, electrons, and pions of different energies at the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron. The use of this technology for future experiments requires a reliable simulation of its response that can predict its performan…
The intrinsic time structure of hadronic showers has been studied to evaluate its influence on the timing capability and on the required integration time of highly granular hadronic calorimeters in future collider experiments. The experiments have been carried with systems of 15 detector cells, using both scintillator tiles with SiPM readout and RPCs, read out with fast digitizers and deep buffers. These were installed behind the CALICE scintillator - Tungsten and RPC - Tungsten calorimeters as well as behind the CALICE semi-digital RPC - Steel calorimeter during test beam periods at the CERN …
The spatial resolution of laterally segmented electromagnetic calorimeters is studied on the basis of Monte-Carlo simulations worked-out for lead fluoride material. Parametrization of the relative resolution is proposed and optimized in terms of the energy of incoming particles and the elementary size of the calorimeter blocks. A new fit algorithm method is proposed that improves spatial resolution at high energies, and provides guidance for the design optimization of electromagnetic calorimeters.
Calorimeter shower superresolution
针对大型强子对撞机量能器簇射模拟的计算瓶颈，提出基于流的超分辨率模型SuperCalo，可从粗粒度簇射快速生成高保真细粒度簇射，有效降低计算成本与生成时间。
In order to better understand energy estimation of electromagnetic showers in segmented calorimeters, detailed Geant4 simulation studies of electromagnetic showers in the energy range 1--100 GeV in CsI have been performed. When sampled in layers of 1.99 cm thickness, corresponding to 1.08 radiation lengths, the energy fluctuations in the samples show distributions that vary significantly with depth. The energy distributions are similar for incident electrons and photons and were found to change systematically along the shower, varying little with the initial energy. Three probability distribut…
We outline a physics program at Fermilab that would significantly improve our ability to understand the behavior of hadronic showers in calorimeters. This would involve a two-pronged approach designed to measure particle production cross sections of hadronic beams on several nuclei to improve shower simulation programs and the validation of the improved shower simulation predictions using test beams (including tagged neutral beams) in which calorimeter modules built using various technologies are deployed in the test beam. Such a program would be of immediate benefit to the efforts to design a…
The contributions of neutrons to hadronic signals from the DREAM calorimeter are measured by analyzing the time structure of these signals. The neutrons, which mainly originate from the evaporation stage of nuclear breakup in the hadronic shower development process, contribute through elastic scattering off protons in the plastic scintillating fibers which provide the $dE/dx$ information in this calorimeter. This contribution is characterized by an exponential tail in the pulse shape, with a time constant of $\sim 25$ ns. The relative contribution of neutrons to the signals increases with the …
We propose an approach to derive longitudinal shower development information from the longitudinally unsegmented BABAR electromagnetic calorimeter by using tracking information. Our algorithm takes advantage of the good three-dimensional tracking resolution of BABAR, which provides an independent geometric constraint on the shower as measured in the BABAR crystal calorimeter. We show that adding the derived longitudinal shower development information to standard particle identification algorithms significantly improves the low-momentum separation of pions from electrons and muons. We also veri…
The CALICE collaboration has constructed a highly granular hadronic calorimeter based on small scintillator tiles read out with silicon photomultipliers. With this detector, data was taken at CERN and at Fermilab. The high granularity of the detector allows the identification of minimum-ionizing track segments within hadronic showers, demonstrating the imaging capabilities of particle flow calorimeters. These tracks can be used for the cell-by-cell calibration of such a calorimeter. The possibility to calibrate a complete ILC calorimeter with such track segments in the absence of muons is also…
Score-based generative models are a new class of generative algorithms that have been shown to produce realistic images even in high dimensional spaces, currently surpassing other state-of-the-art models for different benchmark categories and applications. In this work we introduce CaloScore, a score-based generative model for collider physics applied to calorimeter shower generation. Three different diffusion models are investigated using the Fast Calorimeter Simulation Challenge 2022 dataset. CaloScore is the first application of a score-based generative model in collider physics and is able…
Prototypes of electromagnetic and hadronic imaging calorimeters developed and operated by the CALICE collaboration provide an unprecedented wealth of highly granular data of hadronic showers for a variety of active sensor elements and different absorber materials. In this presentation, we discuss detailed measurements of the spatial and the time structure of hadronic showers to characterise the different stages of hadronic cascades in the calorimeters, which are then confronted with GEANT4-based simulations using different hadronic physics models. These studies also extend to the two different…
Shower Separation in Five Dimensions for Highly Granular Calorimeters using Machine Learning
本文利用机器学习在五维信息空间中实现高颗粒度量能器的带电与中性强子簇射分离，通过对比有无定时信息的神经网络模型，证明定时信息能显著提升事例重建性能，为时间敏感型量能器设计提供依据。
The high-luminosity upgrade of the LHC will come with unprecedented physics and computing challenges. One of these challenges is the accurate reconstruction of particles in events with up to 200 simultaneous proton-proton interactions. The planned CMS High Granularity Calorimeter offers fine spatial resolution for this purpose, with more than 6 million channels, but also poses unique challenges to reconstruction algorithms aiming to reconstruct individual particle showers. In this contribution, we propose an end-to-end machine-learning method that performs clustering, classification, and energ…
The Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) is a general-purpose experimental apparatus with an inner tracking detector for measuring charged particles, surrounded by a calorimeter for measurements of electromagnetic and hadronic showers. We describe a {\sc geant4} simulation and parameterization of the response of the CDF central electromagnetic calorimeter (CEM) to incident electrons and photons. The detector model consists of a detailed description of the CEM geometry and material in the direction of the incident particle's trajectory, and of the passive material between the tracker and the CEM…
CaloShowerGAN, a Generative Adversarial Networks model for fast calorimeter shower simulation
本文提出基于生成对抗网络的 CaloShowerGAN 模型，利用快速量能器模拟挑战赛数据集验证其对光子和π介子簇射的模拟效果，并有望显著提升 ATLAS 快速模拟性能。
Calorimeter simulation is the most computationally expensive part of Monte Carlo generation of samples necessary for analysis of experimental data at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The High-Luminosity upgrade of the LHC would require an even larger amount of such samples. We present a technique based on Discrete Variational Autoencoders (DVAEs) to simulate particle showers in Electromagnetic Calorimeters. We discuss how this work paves the way towards exploration of quantum annealing processors as sampling devices for generation of simulated High Energy Physics datasets.
Transferable Fast Calorimeter Shower Generation via Multi-Geometry Pre-training
本研究提出通过多几何预训练，引入SimpleBox合成箱式量能器集合，实现可迁移的量能器簇射生成器，经微调后在未见过的量能器上表现优于真实探测器预训练模型，降低模拟成本。
Hadronic showers are characterized by a rich particle structure in the spatial as well as in the time domain. The prompt component comes from relativistic fragments that deposit energy at the ns scale, while late components are associated predominantly with neutrons in the cascade. To measure the impact of these late components, two experiments, based on gaseous and plastic active layers with steel and tungsten absorbers, were set up. The different choice for the material of the active layers produces distinct responses to neutrons, and consequently to late energy depositions. After discussing…
The precise measurement of photon or electron impact position is the prerequisite to reconstruct the origin of two photons events from decay of π0 and η mesons or the di-electron channel from quarkonia decay. To facilitate such a measurement, an electromagnetic calorimeter prototype using Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) was build and tested. The 30 $\times$ 30 m$^2$ granularity coupled with an optimized centre of gravity with power law weight method dedicatedly developed for the particle counting digital calorimeter, makes precise reconstruction of impact position of electromagnetic sho…
AllShowers: One model for all calorimeter showers
AllShowers是一种统一的生成模型，能够高效模拟多种粒子类型的calorimeter shower，提升碰撞实验中探测器模拟的保真度和效率。
Precision measurements and new physics searches at the Large Hadron Collider require efficient simulations of particle propagation and interactions within the detectors. The most computationally expensive simulations involve calorimeter showers. Advances in deep generative modelling - particularly in the realm of high-dimensional data - have opened the possibility of generating realistic calorimeter showers orders of magnitude more quickly than physics-based simulation. However, the high-dimensional representation of showers belies the relative simplicity and structure of the underlying physic…
The advent of silicon photomultipliers has enabled big advances in high energy physics instrumentation, for example by allowing the construction of extremely granular hadronic calorimeters with photon sensors integrated into small scintillator tiles. Direct coupling of the SiPM to the plastic scintillator, without use of wavelength shifting fibers, provides a fast detector response, making such devices well suited for precise timing measurements. We have constructed a setup consisting of 15 such scintillator tiles read out with fast digitizers with deep buffers to measure the time structure of…
The CALICE collaboration investigates different technology options for highly granular calorimeters for detectors at a future electron-positron collider. One of the devices constructed and tested by the collaboration is a 1m^3 prototype for an imaging scintillator-steel sampling calorimeter for hadrons with analogue readout (AHCAL). The light from 7608 small scintillator cells is detected with silicon photomultipliers. The AHCAL has been successfully operated during electron and hadron test-beam measurements at DESY, CERN, and Fermilab since 2005. The collected data allow for evaluating the no…
A silicon-based fine granularity calorimeter is a potential technology for the future International Linear Collider ILC, the future circular collider CEPC, and is also the chosen technology for the upgraded CMS experiment of the Large Hadron Collider. Active silicon sensing pads are used as MIP counters and the standard calibration of the calorimeter uses weights based on the average energy loss, $dEdx$. In this work, the limitations of the dEdx calibration method in terms of energy linearity, scale and resolution are explored. In the case of a calorimeter with varying passive layer thickness …
Physics-Constrained Generative Inference of Sub-Crystal Electromagnetic Shower Structure in a Segmented Calorimeter
该研究针对分段量能器有限粒度导致的簇射重建精度限制，提出受物理约束的生成式逆问题求解方法，在KOTO实验量能器上实现了矩残差降低，还提升了未训练量的重建效果，揭示了分段量能器的信息恢复潜力。
Calorimeter shower simulations are often the bottleneck in simulation time for particle physics detectors. A lot of effort is currently spent on optimizing generative architectures for specific detector geometries, which generalize poorly. We develop a geometry-aware autoregressive model on a range of calorimeter geometries such that the model learns to adapt its energy deposition depending on the size and position of the cells. This is a key proof-of-concept step towards building a model that can generalize to new unseen calorimeter geometries with little to no additional training. Such a mod…
The granularity of calorimeter has been revolutionary boosted for future collider experiments. The calorimeter has been pushed to a stage that the sub structure of showers especially hadronic showers can be recorded to a high precision. New reconstruction algorithms are expected from these informations. Following the idea that shower follows the topology of the tree, we developed Arbor, a Particle Flow Algorithm framework. Tested on both simulated data and test beam data, it can successfully separate nearby showers. It has comparable jet energy resolution the best PFA algorithm for Internation…
Detectors proposed for the International Linear Collider (ILC) incorporate a tungsten sampling calorimeter (`BeamCal') intended to reconstruct showers of electrons, positrons and photons that emerge from the interaction point of the collider with angles between 5 and 50 milliradians. For the innermost radius of this calorimeter, radiation doses at shower-max are expected to reach 100 MRad per year, primarily due to minimum-ionizing electrons and positrons that arise in the induced electromagnetic showers of e+e- `beamstrahlung' pairs produced in the ILC beam-beam interaction. However, radiatio…
Detectors proposed for the International Linear Collider (ILC) incorporate a tungsten sampling calorimeter (`BeamCal') intended to reconstruct showers of electrons, positrons and photons that emerge from the interaction point of the collider with angles between 5 and 50 milliradians. For the innermost radius of this calorimeter, radiation doses at shower-max are expected to reach 100 MRad per year, primarily due to minimum-ionizing electrons and positrons that arise in the induced electromagnetic showers of e+e- `beamstrahlung' pairs produced in the ILC beam-beam interaction. However, radiatio…
Studies of Hadronic Showers in SND@LHC
SND@LHC实验通过靶区和量能器观测LHC中微子碰撞产生的强子簇射，利用2023年CERN 100-300 GeV强子束测试数据，开发了簇射标记、起点定位和总能量测量方法。
OmniJet-$α_C$: Learning point cloud calorimeter simulations using generative transformers
本研究首次将生成式Transformer用于高粒度量能器的点云簇射模拟，基于OmniJet-$α$的分词与生成模块将击中转为可变长整数序列，可学习簇射几何且不受体素网格限制。
CaloScore v2: Single-shot Calorimeter Shower Simulation with Diffusion Models
本文改进了CaloScore架构，通过优化扩散过程和渐进蒸馏技术，实现单次函数评估生成高质量样本，适用于真实环境下的快速模拟需求。
GEANT4-Based Comparative Study of Detector Response in Reduced and Fully Instrumented Silicon-Tungsten Sampling Calorimeter
本文基于GEANT4模拟比较了缩减与全仪器化硅-钨取样量能器的电磁簇射响应，证明缩减原型能再现簇射发展主要特征，并可通过相关性估算量热性能。
Detectors at future $e^+e^-$ colliders need special calorimeters in the very forward region for a fast estimate and precise measurement of the luminosity, to improve the hermeticity and mask the central tracking detectors from backscattered particles. In our concept, two compact calorimeters are foreseen, LumiCal and BeamCal. Both are designed as sandwich calorimeters with very thin sensor planes to keep the Molière radius small, facilitating such the measurement of electron showers in the presence of background. Silicon sensor prototypes and dedicated FE ASICs have been developed and produced…
Detectors proposed for the International Linear Collider (ILC) incorporate a tungsten sampling calorimeter (`BeamCal') intended to reconstruct showers of electrons, positrons and photons that emerge from the interaction point of the collider with angles between 5 and 50 milliradians. For the innermost radius of this calorimeter, radiation doses at shower max are expected to reach 100 Mrad per year, primarily due to minimum-ionizing electrons and positrons that arise in the induced electromagnetic showers of e$^+$e$^-$ `beamstrahlung' pairs produced in the ILC beam-beam interaction. However, ra…
Detectors proposed for the International Linear Collider (ILC) incorporate a tungsten sampling calorimeter (`BeamCal') intended to reconstruct showers of electrons, positrons and photons that emerge from the interaction point of the collider with angles between 5 and 50 milliradians. For the innermost radius of this calorimeter, radiation doses at shower max are expected to reach 100 Mrad per year, primarily due to minimum-ionizing electrons and positrons that arise in the induced electromagnetic showers of e+e- `beamstrahlung' pairs produced in the ILC beam-beam interaction. However, radiatio…
Energy Response and Resolution to Positrons in a Capillary-Tube Dual-Readout Calorimeter
本研究针对未来对撞机精密能量测量需求，测试了9模块毛细管光纤双读出量能器原型在10-120 GeV正电子束下的能量响应线性度与分辨率，验证了该设计用于大规模双读出量能探测的可行性，为HiDRa项目后续研发提供基准。
AI-Assisted Object Condensation Clustering for Calorimeter Shower Reconstruction at CLAS12
提出基于对象凝聚、GravNet 与 Transformer 的 CLAS12 量能器击中聚类方法，在百万模拟 e+p 事件中显著提升中子和光子可靠簇团比例。
Calibration of the three layer NaI(Tl) spherical calorimeter of the SND detector using electron -- positron scattering events is described. Energy resolution of $5 % (FWHM/2.36)$ for 500 MeV photons was achieved.
CaloFlow II: Even Faster and Still Accurate Generation of Calorimeter Showers with Normalizing Flows
本研究对基于归一化流的量能器簇射生成模型CaloFlow进行改进，引入拓展后的概率密度蒸馏技术，推出的CaloFlow v2速度比原版快500倍、比GEANT4快$10^4$倍，同时保持高保真度，在速度达最优的同时保真度超越此前最优水平。
Study of time and energy resolution of an ultra-compact sampling calorimeter (RADiCAL) module at EM shower maximum over the energy range 25 GeV $\leq$ E $\leq$ 150 GeV
RADiCAL合作组研发了基于闪烁与波长移位技术的超紧凑采样量能器模块，并在CERN的H2电子束下测试，证明其在150 GeV时时间分辨率达27 ps。
Exposing a fibre-based dual-readout calorimeter to a positron beam
本研究测试了一种基于光纤的双读出量能器原型在10至100 GeV正电子束下的性能，结果显示其线性优于1%，能量分辨率与Geant4模拟预测吻合良好，随机项为14.5%。
For calorimeter applications requiring precise time stamping, the time structure of hadronic showers in the detector is a crucial issue. This applies in particular to detector concepts for CLIC, where a hadronic calorimeter with tungsten absorbers is being considered to achieve a high level of shower containment while satisfying strict space constraints. The high hadronic background from gamma gamma to hadrons processes at 3 TeV in combination with the 2 GHz bunch crossing frequency at CLIC requires good time stamping in the detectors. To provide first measurements of the time structure in a h…
Calorimeter Shower Superresolution with Conditional Normalizing Flows: Implementation and Statistical Evaluation
本文研究了将原本用于快速模拟的生成模型应用于 calorimeter superresolution 的可行性，通过 CaloChallenge 2022 数据集训练并评估模型性能。
An improved weighting algorithm applied to hadron showers has been developed for a fine grained LAr calorimeter. The new method uses tabulated weights which depend on the density of energy deposited in individual cells and in a surrounding cone whose symmetry axis connects the interaction vertex with the highest energy cluster in the shower induced by a hadron. The weighting of the visible energy and the correction for losses due to noise cuts are applied in separate steps. In contrast to standard weighting procedures the new algorithm allows to reconstruct the total energy as well as the spat…
New Angles on Fast Calorimeter Shower Simulation
本研究扩展了用于高粒度量能器粒子簇射模拟的 BIB-AE 架构，实现了多参数条件化并验证了其在基于粒子流的重建后仍保持高物理性能，为开发更通用的模拟工具迈出重要一步。
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