A raga is a melodic structure with fixed notes and a set of rules characterizing a certain mood endorsed through performance. By a vadi swar is meant that note which plays the most significant role in expressing the raga. A samvadi swar similarly is the second most significant note. However, the determination of their significance has an element of subjectivity and hence we are motivated to find some truths through an objective analysis. The paper proposes a probabilistic method of note detection and demonstrates how the relative frequency (relative number of occurrences of the pitch) of the more important notes stabilize far more quickly than that of others. In addition, a count for distinct transitory and similar looking non-transitory (fundamental) frequency movements (but possibly embedding distinct emotions!) between the notes is also taken depicting the varnalankars or musical ornaments decorating the notes and note sequences as rendered by the artist. They reflect certain structural properties of the ragas. Several case studies are presented.
In the previous articles of this series, we have discussed the development of musical scales particularly that of the heptatonic scale which forms the basis of Western classical music today. In this last article, we take a look at the basic structure of scales used in Indian classical music and how different `raga's are generated through the simple process of scale shifting.
PES University（PES大学）；Northwestern University SPS（西北大学SPS）；Great Learning
The impact of Music on the mood or emotion of the listener is a well-researched area in human psychology and behavioral science. In Indian classical music, ragas are the melodic structure that defines the various styles and forms of the music. Each raga has been found to evoke a specific emotion in the listener. With the advent of advanced capabilities of audio signal processing and the application of machine learning, the demand for intelligent music classifiers and recommenders has received increased attention, especially in the 'Music as a service' cloud applications. This paper explores a …
Sir C.V. Raman Centre for Physics and Music, Jadavpur University（贾达普大学C.V.拉曼物理与音乐中心）；Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto（多伦多大学医学生物物理系）；Rekhi Centre of Excellence for the Science of Happiness, IIT Kharagpur（印度理工学院卡哈拉格普尔分校Rekhi幸福科学卓越中心）；School of Languages and Linguistics, Jadavpur University（贾达普大学语言与语言学学院）
Music is often considered as the language of emotions. It has long been known to elicit emotions in human being and thus categorizing music based on the type of emotions they induce in human being is a very intriguing topic of research. When the task comes to classify emotions elicited by Indian Classical Music (ICM), it becomes much more challenging because of the inherent ambiguity associated with ICM. The fact that a single musical performance can evoke a variety of emotional response in the audience is implicit to the nature of ICM renditions. With the rapid advancements in the field of De…
The paper gives an artificial neural network (ANN) approach to time series modeling, the data being instance versus notes (characterized by pitch) depicting the structure of a North Indian raga, namely, Bageshree. Respecting the sentiments of the artists' community, the paper argues why it is more ethical to model a structure than try and "manufacture" an artist by training the neural network to copy performances of artists. Indian Classical Music centers on the ragas, where emotion and devotion are both important and neither can be substituted by such "calculated artistry" which the ANN gener…
National Public School, Indiranagar, Bangalore（国家公立学校，因迪拉纳加尔，班加罗尔）
In North Indian Classical music, each raga has been traditionally associated with a performance time, which supposedly maximizes its aesthetic and emotional effects on the listener. The objective of this work was to investigate the structural basis, if any, for the association of ragas with different times of the 24-hour span. The tonnetz framework has been used to analyze the pitch sets of 65 North Indian Classical ragas, and structural similarities have been observed between ragas associated with (1) times of transition between day and night, i.e., dawn and dusk, and (2) times between these …
Ragas form the foundation for Indian Classical Music. The task of Raga Recognition has gained traction in the Music Information Retrieval community in the recent past, which can be attributed to the nuances of Indian Classical Music that have resulted in a plethora of research problems in Computing. In this work, we used two different digital audio signal processing techniques to preprocess audio samples of Carnatic classical ragas that were then processed by various Deep Learning models. Their results were compared in order to infer which DASP technique is better suited to the task of raga re…
Raga is a central musical concept in South Asia, especially India, and we investigate connections between Western classical music and Melakarta raga that is a raga in Karnatak (south Indian) classical music, through musical icosahedron. In our previous study, we introduced some kinds of musical icosahedra connecting various musical concepts in Western music: chromatic/whole tone musical icosahedra, Pythagorean/whole tone musical icosahedra, and exceptional musical icosahedra. In this paper, first, we introduce kinds of musical icosahedra that connect the above musical icosahedra through two ki…
The potential use of non-linear speech features has not been investigated for music analysis although other commonly used speech features like Mel Frequency Ceptral Coefficients (MFCC) and pitch have been used extensively. In this paper, we assume an audio signal to be a sum of modulated sinusoidal and then use the energy separation algorithm to decompose the audio into amplitude and frequency modulation components using the non-linear Teager-Kaiser energy operator. We first identify the distribution of these non-linear features for music only and voice only segments in the audio signal in dif…
Music is a string of some of the notes out of 12 notes (Sa, Komal_re, Re, Komal_ga, Ga, Ma, Kari_ma, Pa, Komal_dha, Dha, Komal_ni, Ni) and their harmonics. Each note corresponds to a particular frequency. When such strings are encoded to form discrete sequences, different frequencies present in the music corresponds to different amplitude levels (value) of the discrete sequence. Initially, a class of discrete sequences has been generated using logistic map. All these discrete sequences have at most n-different amplitude levels (value) (depending on the particular raga). Without loss of general…
Sir C.V. Raman Centre for Physics and Music（C.V. 拉曼爵士物理与音乐中心）；Jadavpur University（贾达普大学）
In North Indian Classical Music, raga forms the basic structure over which individual improvisations is performed by an artist based on his/her creativity. The Alap is the opening section of a typical Hindustani Music (HM) performance, where the raga is introduced and the paths of its development are revealed using all the notes used in that particular raga and allowed transitions between them with proper distribution over time. In India, corresponding to each raga, several emotional flavors are listed, namely erotic love, pathetic, devotional, comic, horrific, repugnant, heroic, fantastic, fu…
The development of new statistical and computational methods is increasingly making it possible to bridge the gap between hard sciences and humanities. In this study, we propose an approach based on a quantitative evaluation of attributes of objects in fields of humanities, from which concepts such as dialectics and opposition are formally defined mathematically. As case studies, we analyzed the temporal evolution of classical music and philosophy by obtaining data for 8 features characterizing the corresponding fields for 7 well-known composers and philosophers, which were treated with multiv…
A commonly-cited reason for the poor performance of automatic chord estimation (ACE) systems within music information retrieval (MIR) is that non-chord tones (i.e., notes outside the supporting harmony) contribute to error during the labeling process. Despite the prevalence of machine learning approaches in MIR, there are cases where alternative approaches provide a simpler alternative while allowing for insights into musicological practices. In this project, we present a statistical model for predicting chord tones based on music theory rules. Our model is currently focused on predicting chor…
Jadavpur University（贾达普大学）；IIT Kharagpur（印度理工学院克勒格布尔分校）；University of Toronto（多伦多大学）
Since the start of Indian cinema, a number of films have been made where a particular song is based on a certain raga. These songs have been taking a major role in spreading the essence of classical music to the common people, who have no formal exposure to classical music. In this paper, we look to explore what are the particular features of a certain raga which make it understandable to common people and enrich the song to a great extent. For this, we chose two common ragas of Hindustani classical music, namely "Bhairav" and "Mian ki Malhar" which are known to have widespread application in …
Complexity of frequency fluctuations and the interpretive style in the bass viola da gamba
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)（墨西哥国立自治大学）；Centro Regional de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias (CRIM)（多学科研究区域中心）；Facultad de Economía (FE)（经济学院）；Facultad de Música (FaM)（音乐学院）
Queen Mary University of London（伦敦玛丽女王大学）；Vrije Universiteit Brussel（布鲁塞尔自由大学）
Music Performers have their own idiosyncratic way of interpreting a musical piece. A group of skilled performers playing the same piece of music would likely to inject their unique artistic styles in their performances. The variations of the tempo, timing, dynamics, articulation etc. from the actual notated music are what make the performers unique in their performances. This study presents a dataset consisting of four movements of Schubert's ``Sonata in B-flat major, D.960" performed by nine virtuoso pianists individually. We proposed and extracted a set of expressive features that are able t…
Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa（里斯本大学高等技术学院）；INESC-ID Lisboa（里斯本INESC-ID研究所）；Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL)（里斯本大学学院）
Music semantics is embodied, in the sense that meaning is biologically mediated by and grounded in the human body and brain. This embodied cognition perspective also explains why music structures modulate kinetic and somatosensory perception. We leverage this aspect of cognition, by considering dance as a proxy for music perception, in a statistical computational model that learns semiotic correlations between music audio and dance video. We evaluate the ability of this model to effectively capture underlying semantics in a cross-modal retrieval task. Quantitative results, validated with stati…
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro（里约热内卢联邦大学）；Instituto de Matemática（数学研究所）
This work was developed aiming to employ Statistical techniques to the field of Music Emotion Recognition, a well-recognized area within the Signal Processing world, but hardly explored from the statistical point of view. Here, we opened several possibilities within the field, applying modern Bayesian Statistics techniques and developing efficient algorithms, focusing on the applicability of the results obtained. Although the motivation for this project was the development of a emotion-based music recommendation system, its main contribution is a highly adaptable multivariate model that can be…
Representation and learning of long-range dependencies is a central challenge confronted in modern applications of machine learning to sequence data. Yet despite the prominence of this issue, the basic problem of measuring long-range dependence, either in a given data source or as represented in a trained deep model, remains largely limited to heuristic tools. We contribute a statistical framework for investigating long-range dependence in current applications of deep sequence modeling, drawing on the well-developed theory of long memory stochastic processes. This framework yields testable imp…
Universidade Estadual de Maringá（马林加州立大学）；National Institute of Science and Technology for Complex Systems（国家复杂系统科学技术研究所）
We report a statistical analysis over more than eight thousand songs. Specifically, we investigate the probability distribution of the normalized sound amplitudes. Our findings seems to suggest a universal form of distribution which presents a good agreement with a one-parameter stretched Gaussian. We also argue that this parameter can give information on music complexity, and consequently it goes towards classifying songs as well as music genres. Additionally, we present statistical evidences that correlation aspects of the songs are directly related with the non-Gaussian nature of their soun…
Sony Computer Science Laboratories, Paris（索尼计算机科学实验室（巴黎））；LIP6, Université Pierre et Marie Curie（皮埃尔和玛丽·居里大学LIP6实验室）
Modeling polyphonic music is a particularly challenging task because of the intricate interplay between melody and harmony. A good model should satisfy three requirements: statistical accuracy (capturing faithfully the statistics of correlations at various ranges, horizontally and vertically), flexibility (coping with arbitrary user constraints), and generalization capacity (inventing new material, while staying in the style of the training corpus). Models proposed so far fail on at least one of these requirements. We propose a statistical model of polyphonic music, based on the maximum entrop…
Inpainting-based generative modeling allows for stimulating human-machine interactions by letting users perform stylistically coherent local editions to an object using a statistical model. We present NONOTO, a new interface for interactive music generation based on inpainting models. It is aimed both at researchers, by offering a simple and flexible API allowing them to connect their own models with the interface, and at musicians by providing industry-standard features such as audio playback, real-time MIDI output and straightforward synchronization with DAWs using Ableton Link.
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati（印度理工学院古瓦哈提分校）；Indian Institute of Technology Dharwad（印度理工学院达尔瓦德分校）
Distinct striation patterns are observed in the spectrograms of speech and music. This motivated us to propose three novel time-frequency features for speech-music classification. These features are extracted in two stages. First, a preset number of prominent spectral peak locations are identified from the spectra of each frame. These important peak locations obtained from each frame are used to form Spectral peak sequences (SPS) for an audio interval. In second stage, these SPS are treated as time series data of frequency locations. The proposed features are extracted as periodicity, average …
Central Conservatory of Music（中央音乐学院）；Tsinghua University（清华大学）
Benefiting from large-scale datasets and pre-trained models, the field of generative models has recently gained significant momentum. However, most datasets for symbolic music are very small, which potentially limits the performance of data-driven multimodal models. An intuitive solution to this problem is to leverage pre-trained models from other modalities (e.g., natural language) to improve the performance of symbolic music-related multimodal tasks. In this paper, we carry out the first study of generating complete and semantically consistent symbolic music scores from text descriptions, an…
Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence (OFAI)（奥地利人工智能研究所）；Johannes Kepler University（约翰内斯·开普勒大学）；Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR（新加坡科技研究局高性能计算研究所）
Tonal structure is in part conveyed by statistical regularities between musical events, and research has shown that computational models reflect tonal structure in music by capturing these regularities in schematic constructs like pitch histograms. Of the few studies that model the acquisition of perceptual learning from musical data, most have employed self-organizing models that learn a topology of static descriptions of musical contexts. Also, the stimuli used to train these models are often symbolic rather than acoustically faithful representations of musical material. In this work we inve…
