7 pages, 1 figure. The revision of the manuscript appeared in PLA. Some procedures for detecting cheat have been added. Then the security loophole in the original manuscript has been eliminated
A protocol for multiparty quantum secret splitting is proposed with an ordered $N$ EPR pairs and Bell state measurements. It is secure and has the high intrinsic efficiency and source capacity as almost all the instances are useful and each EPR pair carries two bits of message securely. Moreover, we modify it for multiparty quantum state sharing of an arbitrary $m$-particle entangled state based on quantum teleportation with only Bell state measurements and local unitary operations which make this protocol more convenient in a practical application than others.
Based on a quantum secure direct communication (QSDC) protocol [Phys. Rev. A69(04)052319], we propose a $(n,n)$-threshold scheme of multiparty quantum secret sharing of classical messages (QSSCM) using only single photons. We take advantage of this multiparty QSSCM scheme to establish a scheme of multiparty secret sharing of quantum information (SSQI), in which only all quantum information receivers collaborate can the original qubit be reconstructed. A general idea is also proposed for constructing multiparty SSQI schemes from any QSSCM scheme.
An protocol of quantum secret sharing between multiparty and multiparty with four states is presented. We show that this protocol can make the Trojan horse attack with a multi-photon signal, the fake-signal attack with EPR pairs, the attack with single photons, and the attack with invisible photons to be nullification. In addition, we also give the upper bounds of the average success probabilities for dishonest agent eavesdropping encryption using the fake-signal attack with any two-particle entangled states.
A general proof of the security against eavesdropping of a previously introduced protocol for two-party quantum key distribution based on entanglement swapping [Phys. Rev. A {\bf 61}, 052312 (2000)] is provided. In addition, the protocol is extended to permit multiparty quantum key distribution and secret sharing of classical information.
Recently, Yan and Gao proposed a quantum secret sharing protocol between multiparty ($m$ members in group 1) and multiparty ($n$ members in group 2) using a sequence of single photons (Phys. Rev. A \textbf{72}, 012304 (2005)). We find that it is secure if the quantum signal transmitted is only a single photon but insecure with a multi-photon signal as some agents can get the information about the others' message if they attack the communication with a Trojan horse. However, security against this attack can be attained with a simple modification.
A multiparty quantum secret sharing (QSS) protocol is proposed by using swapping quantum entanglement of Bell states. The secret messages are imposed on Bell states by local unitary operations. The secret messages are split into several parts and each part is distributed to a party so that no action of a subset of all the parties but their entire cooperation is able to read out the secret messages. In addition, the dense coding is used in this protocol to achieve a high efficiency. The security of the present multiparty QSS against eavesdropping has been analyzed and confirmed even in a noisy …
In a recent paper [Z. J. Zhang and Z. X. Man, Phys. Rev. A 72, 022303(2005)], a multiparty quantum secret sharing protocol based on entanglement swapping was presented. However, as we show, this protocol is insecure in the sense that an unauthorized agent group can recover the secret from the dealer. Hence, we propose an improved version of this protocol which can stand against this kind of attack.
In this comment, we show that the special attack [S.-J. Qin, F. Gao, Q.-Y. Wen, F.-C. Zhu, Opt. Commun. 281 (2008) 5472.], which claims to be able to obtain all the transmitted secret message bit values of the protocol of the multiparty quantum secret sharing of secure direct communication using single photons with random phase shift operations, fails. Furthermore, a class of similar attacks are also shown to fail to extract the secrete message.
We propose a scheme of quantum secret sharing between Alices' group and Bobs' group with single photons and unitary transformations. In the protocol, one member in Alices' group prepares a sequence of single photons in one of four different states, while other members directly encode their information on the sequence of single photons via unitary operations, after that the last member sends the sequence of single photons to Bobs' group. Then Bobs except for the last one do work similarly. Finally last member in Bobs' group measures the qubits. If Alices and Bobs guarnnted the security of quant…
Base on the idea of dense coding of three-photon entangled state and qubit transmission in blocks, we present a multiparty controlled quantum secret direct communication scheme using Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger state. In the present scheme, the sender transmits her three bits of secret message to the receiver directly and the secret message can only be recovered by the receiver under the permission of all the controllers. All three-photon entangled states are used to transmit the secret messages except those chosen for eavesdropping check and the present scheme has a high source capacity becau…
A protocol for multiparty quantum secret splitting (MQSS) with an ordered $N$ Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) pairs and Bell state measurements is recently proposed by Deng {\rm et al.} [Phys. Lett. A 354(2006)190]. We analyzed the security of the protocol and found that this protocol is secure for any other eavesdropper except for the agent Bob who adopts intercept-and-resend attack. Bob can obtain all the information of Alice's alone without being found. We also propose an improved version of the MQSS protocol.
We show that, using Wang et al. attack [T.-y. Wang, Q.-y. Wen, F. Gao, S. Lin, F.-c. Zhu, Phys. Lett. A 373 (2008) 65], the first agent and the last agent cannot eavesdrop all the secret messages in Zhang et al. QSSCM scheme [Z.-j. Zhang, G. Gao, X. Wang, L.-f Han, S.-h. Shi, Opt. Commun. 269 (2007) 418]. In some sense, Wang et al. attack is unsuccessful for Zhang et al. QSSCM scheme.
We present two schemes for multiparty quantum remote secret conference in which each legitimate conferee can read out securely the secret message announced by another one, but a vicious eavesdropper can get nothing about it. The first one is based on the same key shared efficiently and securely by all the parties with Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) states, and each conferee sends his secret message to the others with one-time pad crypto-system. The other one is based on quantum encryption with a quantum key, a sequence of GHZ states shared among all the conferees and used repeatedly after c…
Based on the two-step protocol [Phys. Rev. A68(03)042317], we propose a $(n,n)$-threshold multiparty quantum secret sharing protocol of secure direct communication. In our protocol only all the sharers collaborate can the sender's secure direct communication message be extracted. We show a variant version of this protocol based on the variant two-step protocol. This variant version can considerably reduce the realization difficulty in experiment. In contrast to the use of multi-particle GHZ states in the case that the sharer number is larger than 3, the use and identification of Bell states ar…
We present a scheme for multiparty quantum secret sharing of a private key with pure entangled states and decoy photons. The boss, say Alice uses the decoy photons, which are randomly in one of the four nonorthogonal single-photon states, to prevent a potentially dishonest agent from eavesdropping freely. This scheme requires the parties of communication to have neither an ideal single-photon quantum source nor a maximally entangled one, which makes this scheme more convenient than others in a practical application. Moreover, it has the advantage of having high intrinsic efficiency for qubits …
In this paper, we present an (n, n) threshold quantum secret sharing scheme of secure direct communication using Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger state. The present scheme is efficient in that all the Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger states used in the quantum secret sharing scheme are used to generate shared secret messages except those chosen for checking eavesdropper. In our scheme, the measuring basis of communication parties is invariable and the classical information used to check eavesdropping needs only the results of measurements of the communication parties. Another nice feature of our scheme …
We analyzed the security of the multiparty quantum secret sharing (MQSS) protocol recently proposed by Zhang, Li and Man [Phys. Rev. A \textbf{71}, 044301 (2005)] and found that this protocol is secure for any other eavesdropper except for the agent Bob who prepares the quantum signals as he can attack the quantum communication with a Trojan horse. That is, Bob replaces the single-photon signal with a multi-photon one and the other agent Charlie cannot find this cheating as she does not measure the photons before they runs back from the boss Alice, which reveals that this MQSS protocol is not …
Quantum Key Agreement (QKA) signifies that two or more participants together generate a key and QKA has to satisfy the following conditions: 1 Every participant can change the key and the key is not decided by any participant individually. 2 Only participants can know the key; nonparticipants cannot get the key through illegal means. Because of the condition 1 of participating together, it makes transport inefficient in the current mainstream protocols. They use unicast to exchange messages one by one, so it will considerably limit transmission efficiency and increase cost time spent. This stu…
A multiparty quantum secret report scheme is proposed with quantum encryption. The boss Alice and her $M$ agents first share a sequence of ($M$+1)-particle Greenberger--Horne--Zeilinger (GHZ) states that only Alice knows which state each ($M$+1)-particle quantum system is in. Each agent exploits a controlled-not (CNot) gate to encrypt the travelling particle by using the particle in the GHZ state as the control qubit. The boss Alice decrypts the travelling particle with a CNot gate after performing a $σ_x$ operation on her particle in the GHZ state or not. After the GHZ states (the quantum key…
Multiparty quantum communication is an important branch of quantum networks. It enables private information transmission with information-theoretic security among legitimate parties. We propose a sender-controlled measurement-device-independent multiparty quantum communication protocol. The sender Alice divides a private message into several parts and delivers them to different receivers for secret sharing with imperfect measurement devices and untrusted ancillary nodes. Furthermore, Alice acts as an active controller and checks the security of quantum channels and the reliability of each rece…
We propose a scheme for multiparty hierarchical quantum-information splitting (QIS) with a multipartite entangled state, where a boss distributes a secret quantum state to two grades of agents asymmetrically. The agents who belong to different grades have different authorities for recovering boss's secret. Except for boss's Bell-state measurement, no nonlocal operation is involved. The presented scheme is also shown to be secure against eavesdropping. Such a hierarchical QIS is expected to find useful applications in the field of modern multipartite quantum cryptography.
We present a simple and practical protocol for the solution of a secure multiparty communication task, the secret sharing, and its experimental realization. In this protocol, a secret message is split among several parties in a way that its reconstruction require the collaboration of the participating parties. In the proposed scheme the parties solve the problem by a sequential communication of a single qubit. Moreover we show that our scheme is equivalent to the use of a multiparty entangled GHZ state but easier to realize and better scalable in practical applications.
A scheme for secure multiparty quantum summation was proposed by Run-hau Shi et al.,(SCIENTIFIC REPORTS, 6:19655, DOI:10.1038/srep19655). IBM Corporation has released a superconductivity based 5-qubit quantum computer named "Quantum Experience" and placed it on "cloud". In this paper we take advantage of the online availability of this real quantum processor(ibmqx2) and carry out the above protocol that has never been experimentally demonstrated earlier. Here, we set up experiments for secure quantum summation of one-qubit secret states . Besides, we propose a protocol for square and cubic sum…
This study proposes a multiparty mediated quantum secret sharing (MQSS) protocol that allows n restricted quantum users to share a secret via the assistance of a dishonest third-party (TP) with full quantum capabilities. Under the premise that a restricted quantum user can only perform the Hadamard transformation and the Z-basis measurement, the proposed MQSS protocol has addressed two common challenges in the existing semi-quantum secret sharing protocols: (1) the dealer must have full quantum capability, and (2) the classical users must equip with the wavelength quantum filter and the photon…
We present a scheme for symmetric multiparty quantum state sharing of an arbitrary $m$-qubit state with $m$ Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger states following some ideas from the controlled teleportation [Phys. Rev. A \textbf{72}, 02338 (2005)]. The sender Alice performs $m$ Bell-state measurements on her $2m$ particles and the controllers need only to take some single-photon product measurements on their photons independently, not Bell-state measurements, which makes this scheme more convenient than the latter. Also it does not require the parties to perform a controlled-NOT gate on the photons for…
A scheme for multiparty quantum state sharing of an arbitrary two-particle state is presented with Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen pairs. Any one of the $N$ agents has the access to regenerate the original state with two local unitary operations if he collaborates with the other agents, say the controllers. Moreover, each of the controllers is required to take only a product measurement $σ_x \otimes σ_x$ on his two particles, which makes this scheme more convenient for the agents in the applications on a network than others. As all the quantum source can be used to carry the useful information, the in…
Extending the eavesdropping strategy devised by Zhang, Li and Guo [Phys. Rev. A 63, 036301 (2001)], we show that the multiparty quantum communication protocol based on entanglement swapping, which was proposed by Cabello [quant-ph/0009025], is not secure. We modify the protocol so that entanglement swapping can secure multiparty quantum communication, such as multiparty quantum key distribution and quantum secret sharing of classical information, and show that the modified protocol is secure against the Zhang-Li-Guo's strategy for eavesdropping as well as the basic intercept-resend attack.
Quantum secret sharing (QSS) is essential for multiparty quantum communication, which is one of cornerstones in the future quantum internet. However, a linear rate-distance limitation severely constrains the secure key rate and transmission distance of QSS. Here, we present a practical QSS protocol among three participants based on the differential phase shift scheme and twin field ideas for the solution of high-efficiency multiparty communication task. In contrast to formerly proposed differential phase shift QSS protocol, our protocol can break the linear rate-distance bound, theoretically i…
Secret sharing and multiparty computation (also called "secure function evaluation") are fundamental primitives in modern cryptography, allowing a group of mutually distrustful players to perform correct, distributed computations under the sole assumption that some number of them will follow the protocol honestly. This paper investigates how much trust is necessary -- that is, how many players must remain honest -- in order for distributed quantum computations to be possible. We present a verifiable quantum secret sharing (VQSS) protocol, and a general secure multiparty quantum computation (MP…
Secret sharing is a multiparty cryptographic task in which some secret information is splitted into several pieces which are distributed among the participants such that only an authorized set of participants can reconstruct the original secret. Similar to quantum key distribution, in quantum secret sharing, the secrecy of the shared information relies not on computational assumptions, but on laws of quantum physics. Here, we present an experimental demonstration of four-party quantum secret sharing via the resource of four-photon entanglement.
Quantum information science breaks limitations of conventional information transfer, cryptography and computation by using quantum superpositions or entanglement as resources for information processing. Here, we report on the experimental realization of three-party quantum communication protocols using single three-level quantum system (qutrit) communication: secret sharing, detectable Byzantine agreement, and communication complexity reduction for a three-valued function. We have implemented these three schemes using the same optical fiber interferometric setup. Our realization is easily scal…
Quantum secret sharing allows each player to have classical information for secret sharing in quantum mechanical ways. In this work, we construct a class of quantum states on which players can quantumly perform secret sharing secure against dishonest players as well as eavesdropper. We here call them the genuine secret-sharing states. In addition, we show that if $N$ players share an $N$-party genuine secret-sharing state, then arbitrary $M$ players out of the total players can share an $M$-party genuine secret-sharing state by means of local operations and classical communication on the state…
In this paper we investigate the use of quantum information to share classical secrets. While every quantum secret sharing scheme is a quantum error correcting code, the converse is not true. Motivated by this we sought to find quantum codes which can be converted to secret sharing schemes. If we are interested in sharing classical secrets using quantum information, then we show that a class of pure $[[n,1,d]]_q$ CSS codes can be converted to perfect secret sharing schemes. These secret sharing schemes are perfect in the sense the unauthorized parties do not learn anything about the secret. Go…
We present protocols for multiparty data hiding of quantum information that implement all possible threshold access structures. Closely related to secret sharing, data hiding has a more demanding security requirement: that the data remain secure against unrestricted LOCC attacks. In the limit of hiding a large amount of data, our protocols achieve an asymptotic rate of one hidden qubit per local physical qubit. That is, each party holds a share that is the same size as the hidden state to leading order, with accuracy and security parameters incurring an overhead that is asymptotically negligib…
This paper introduces quantum multiparty protocols which allow the use of temporary assumptions. We prove that secure quantum multiparty computations are possible if and only if classical multi party computations work. But these strict assumptions are necessary only during the execution of the protocol and can be loosened after termination of the protocol. We consider two settings: 1. A collusion of players tries to learn the secret inputs of honest players or tries to modify the result of the computation. 2. A collusion of players cheats in the above way or tries to disrupt the protocol, i.e.…
In this Letter, we present quantum secret sharing and secret splitting protocols with single photons running forth and back between the participating parties. The protocol has a high intrinsic efficiency, namely all photons except those chosen for eavesdropping check could be used for sharing secret. The participants need not to announce the measuring bases at most of the time and this reduces the classical information exchanged largely.
I present a variety of results on the theory of quantum secret sharing. I show that any mixed state quantum secret sharing scheme can be derived by discarding a share from a pure state scheme, and that the size of each share in a quantum secret sharing scheme must be at least as large as the size of the secret. I show that the only constraints on the existence of quantum secret sharing schemes with general access structures are monotonicity (if a set is authorized, so are larger sets) and the no-cloning theorem. I also discuss some aspects of sharing classical secrets using quantum states. In …
Secret sharing is a procedure for sharing a secret among a number of participants such that only the qualified subsets of participants have the ability to reconstruct the secret. Even in the presence of eavesdropping, secret sharing can be achieved when all the members are quantum. So what happens if not all the members are quantum? In this paper we propose two semi-quantum secret sharing protocols using maximally entangled GHZ-type states in which quantum Alice shares a secret with two classical parties, Bob and Charlie, in a way that both parties are sufficient to obtain the secret, but one …
Lin et al. [S. Lin, F. Gao, Q.-y. Wen, F.-c. Zhu, Opt. Commun. 281 (2008) 4553] pointed that the multiparty quantum secret sharing protocol [Z.-j. Zhang, G. Gao, X. Wang, L.-f. Han, S.-h. Shi, Opt. Commun. 269 (2007) 418] is insecure and proposed an improved three-party quantum secret sharing protocol. In this paper, we study the security of the improved three-party quantum secret sharing protocol and find that it is still insecure. Finally, a further improved three-party quantum secret sharing protocol is proposed.
We present a quantum secure direct communication protocol and a multiparty quantum secret sharing protocol based on Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen pairs and entanglement swapping. The present quantum secure direct communication protocol makes use of the ideal of block transmission. We also point out that the sender can encode his or her secret message without ensuring the security of the quantum channel firstly. In the multiparty quantum secret sharing protocol, the communication parties adopt checking mode or encoding mode with a certain probability. It is not necessary for the protocol to perform l…
In a recent work, Markham and Sanders have proposed a framework to study quantum secret sharing (QSS) schemes using graph states. This framework unified three classes of QSS protocols, namely, sharing classical secrets over private and public channels, and sharing quantum secrets. However, most work on secret sharing based on graph states focused on threshold schemes. In this paper, we focus on general access structures. We show how to realize a large class of arbitrary access structures using the graph state formalism. We show an equivalence between $[[n,1]]$ binary quantum codes and graph st…
After analysing the main quantum secret sharing protocol based on the entanglement states, we propose an idea to directly encode the qubit of quantum key distributions, and then present a quantum secret sharing scheme where only product states are employed. As entanglement, especially the inaccessable multi-entangled state, is not necessary in the present quantum secret sharing protocol, it may be more applicable when the number of the parties of secret sharing is large. Its theoretic efficiency is also doubled to approach 100%.
We report the first experimental generation and characterization of a six-photon Dicke state. The produced state shows a fidelity of F=0.56+/-0.02 with respect to an ideal Dicke state and violates a witness detecting genuine six-qubit entanglement by four standard deviations. We confirm characteristic Dicke properties of our resource and demonstrate its versatility by projecting out four- and five-photon Dicke states, as well as four-photon GHZ and W states. We also show that Dicke states have interesting applications in multiparty quantum networking protocols such as open-destination teleport…
Quantum secret sharing is well known as a method for players to share a classical secret for secret sharing in quantum mechanical ways. Most of the results associated with quantum secret sharing are based on pure multipartite entangled states. In reality, however, it is difficult for players to share a pure entangled state, although they can share a state close to the state. Thus, it is necessary to study how to perform the quantum secret sharing based on a general multipartite state. We here present a quantum secret sharing protocol on an $N$-qubit state close to a pure $N$-qubit Greenberger-…
We present a general scheme for sharing quantum secrets, and an extension to sharing classical secrets, which contain all known quantum secret sharing schemes. In this framework we show the equivalence of existence of both schemes, that is, the existence of a scheme sharing a quantum secret implies the extended classical secret sharing scheme works, and vice versa. As a consequence of this we find new schemes sharing classical secrets for arbitrary access structures. We then clarify the relationship to quantum error correction and observe several restrictions thereby imposed, which for example…
This comment points out a problem in Song et al.'s (t, n) threshold quantum secret sharing [Scientific Reports, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2017), pp. 6366], indicating that the agent is unable to obtain the expected information.
Quantum secret sharing is one of the most important and interesting quantum information processing task. In quantum secret sharing, information is split among several parties such that only one of them is able to recover the qubit exactly provided all the other parties agree to cooperate. To achieve this task, all the parties need to share entangled state. As far as my knowledge, all the previous quantum secret sharing protocol used either pure tripartite or pure bipartite entangled state. In this work we use for the first time bipartite two qubit mixed state (formed due to noisy environment) …
We analyze tolerable quantum bit error rates in secret sharing protocols, and show that using entangled encoding states is advantageous in the case when the eavesdropping attacks are local. We also provide a criterion for security in secret sharing -- a parallel of the Csiszar-Korner criterion in single-receiver cryptography.
We propose here a quantum secret sharing scheme that works for both quantum and classical secrets. The proposed scheme is based on both entanglement swapping and teleportation together. It allows sender to encrypt his/her secret and simultaneously distribute decryption information of the encrypted secret among distant parties where decryption shares are nonlocally correlated with each other. Two-fold quantum non-local correlations, generated through entanglement swapping and then teleporting quantum states over swapped maximally entangled pairs, guarantee both authentication and secrecy of the…
Multiparty quantum communication provides delightful applications including quantum cryptographic communication and quantum secret sharing. Measurement-Device-Independent (MDI) quantum communication based on the Greenberg-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) state measurement provides a practical way to implement multiparty quantum communication. With the standard spatially localized GHZ state measurement, however, information can be imbalanced among the communication parties that can cause significant problems in multiparty cryptographic communication. Here, we propose an equitable multiparty quantum commun…
