The Price of Thought: A Multilingual Analysis of Reasoning, Performance, and Cost of Negotiation in Large Language Models
Computational Linguistics, Department of Linguistics University of Potsdam（波恩-博兹恩大学语言学系）；German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence (DFKI), Berlin（德国人工智能研究中心（DFKI））；Free University of Bozen-Bolzano（博兹恩-博尔扎诺自由大学）
Sherzod Hakimov, Roland Bernard, Tim Leiber, Karl Osswald, Kristina Richert, Ruilin Yang, Raffaella Bernardi, David Schlangen
Negotiation is a fundamental challenge for AI agents, as it requires an ability to reason strategically, model opponents, and balance cooperation with competition. We present the first comprehensive study that systematically evaluates how explicit reasoning training affects the negotiation abilities of both commercial and open-weight large language models, comparing these models to their vanilla counterparts across three languages. Using a self-play setup across three diverse dialogue games, we analyse trade-offs between performance and cost, the language consistency of reasoning processes, and the nature of strategic adaptation exhibited by models. Our findings show that enabling reasoning -- that is, scaling test time compute -- significantly improves negotiation outcomes by enhancing collaboration and helping models overcome task complexities, but comes at a substantial computational cost: reasoning improves GPT-5's performance by 31.4 % while increasing its cost by nearly 400 %. Most critically, we uncover a significant multilingual reasoning distinction: open-weight models consistently switch to English for their internal reasoning steps, even when negotiating in German or Italian (and thus possibly impacting potential explainability gains through the disclosure of reasoning traces), while a leading commercial model maintains language consistency between reasoning and final output.
Towards Better Understanding of Program-of-Thought Reasoning in Cross-Lingual and Multilingual Environments
School of Information Science and Technology, VISTEC（信息科学与技术学院，VISTEC）；KAIST（韩国科学技术院）；Cohere；SCB 10X；AI Singapore（AI新加坡）；Department of Computer Engineering, Chulalongkorn University（朱拉隆梭大学计算机工程系）
PRISMA: Preference-Reinforced Self-Training Approach for Interpretable Emotionally Intelligent Negotiation Dialogues
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India（印度理工学院帕纳瓦分校计算机科学与工程系）；School of Artificial Intelligence and Data Science, Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, India（印度理工学院朱道尔分校人工智能与数据科学学院）
SoT: Structured-of-Thought Prompting Guides Multilingual Reasoning in Large Language Models
Key Laboratory of Big Data & Artificial Intelligence in Transportation (Beijing Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education（大数据与人工智能交通 key laboratory（北京交通大学））；School of Computer Science and Technology, Beijing Jiaotong University（计算机科学与技术学院（北京交通大学））；University of Montreal（蒙特利尔大学）
xCoT: Cross-lingual Instruction Tuning for Cross-lingual Chain-of-Thought Reasoning
State Key Lab of Software Development Environment, Beihang University（北京航空航天大学软件开发环境国家重点实验室）；Beijing Information Science and Technology University（北京信息科技大学）；School of New Media and Communication, Tianjin University（天津大学新媒体与传播学院）
The Power of Question Translation Training in Multilingual Reasoning: Broadened Scope and Deepened Insights
National Key Laboratory for Novel Software Technology（计算机软件新技术国家重点实验室）；Shanghai Artificial Intelligence Laboratory（上海人工智能实验室）；School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh（爱丁堡大学信息学院）
Let's Play Across Cultures: A Large Multilingual, Multicultural Benchmark for Assessing Language Models' Understanding of Sports
Indian Institute of Technology Patna（印度理工学院帕纳布分校）；Sardar Patel Institute of Technology（萨达尔·帕特尔技术学院）；Universitas Gadjah Mada（加查马大学）；King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang（拉差班国王技术学院）；Shenzhen Technology University（深圳技术大学）；Université de Toulouse（图卢兹大学）
Macro: Enhancing Multilingual Counterfactual Explanations through Alignment-as-Preference Optimization
Technische Universität Berlin（柏林技术大学）；German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence (DFKI)（德国人工智能研究中心）；University of Duisburg-Essen（杜伊斯堡- Essen大学）；LMU Munich（慕尼黑大学）；Munich Center for Machine Learning (MCML)（慕尼黑机器学习中心）；Saarland Informatics Campus（萨尔兰州信息学校区）；BIFOLD – Berlin Institute for the Foundations of Learning and Data（柏林学习与数据基础研究院）；Centre for European Research in Trusted AI (CERTAIN)（可信人工智能欧洲研究中心）
Cross-Lingual Consistency: A Novel Inference Framework for Advancing Reasoning in Large Language Models
Shandong Inspur Artificial Intelligence Research Institute Co., Ltd.（山东浪潮人工智能研究院有限公司）；Shandong Yunhai Guochuang Cloud Computing Equipment Industry Innovation Center Co., Ltd.（山东云海国创云计算装备产业创新中心有限公司）
Simple LLM Prompting is State-of-the-Art for Robust and Multilingual Dialogue Evaluation
INESC-ID；Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon（里斯本大学高等技术学院）；Faculdade de Letras, University of Lisbon（里斯本大学文学院）；Carnegie Mellon University（卡内基梅隆大学）；Phrase（Phrase公司）
Multi-OphthaLingua: A Multilingual Benchmark for Assessing and Debiasing LLM Ophthalmological QA in LMICs
Massachusetts Institute of Technology（麻省理工学院）；University of Michigan - Ann Arbor（密歇根大学安娜堡分校）；National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University（国立阳明交通大学）；Harvard University（哈佛大学）；University of the Philippines（菲律宾大学）；Stevens Institute of Technology（史蒂文斯理工学院）
Multilingual and Explainable Text Detoxification with Parallel Corpora
Technical University of Munich（慕尼黑工业大学）；Universidade de Santiago de Compostela（圣地亚哥-德孔波斯特拉大学）；Shenkar College（申卡尔学院）；University of Hamburg（汉堡大学）；Bahir Dar University（巴达尔大学）；IIT Kharagpur（印度理工学院克勒格布尔分校）；Skoltech（斯科尔科沃科技学院）；AIRI（人工智能研究所）；University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill（北卡罗来纳大学教堂山分校）；University of Sharjah（沙迦大学）
Less Languages, Less Tokens: An Efficient Unified Logic Cross-lingual Chain-of-Thought Reasoning Framework
Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen（哈尔滨工业大学（深圳））；Central South University（中南大学）；Text Computing and Cognitive Intelligence Ministry of Education Engineering Research Center, Guizhou University（贵州省教育厅Text Computing and Cognitive Intelligence工程研究中心，贵州大学）；University of Science and Technology Beijing（北京科技大学）；Shanghai Jiao Tong University（上海交通大学）；Shanghai Innovation Institute（上海创新研究院）
Evaluating Zero-Shot Multilingual Aspect-Based Sentiment Analysis with Large Language Models
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Quantum Engineering and Quantum Materials, School of Electronic Science and Engineering (School of Microelectronics)（广东量子工程与材料重点实验室，电子科学与工程学院（微电子学院））；South China Normal University（华南师范大学）；Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Intelligent Information Processing（广东智能信息处理重点实验室）；Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich（慕尼黑路德维希-马克西米利安大学）；Munich Center for Machine Learning（慕尼黑机器学习中心）；Technical University of Munich（慕尼黑技术大学）
MultiLingPoT: Enhancing Mathematical Reasoning with Multilingual Program Fine-tuning
Fudan University（复旦大学）；MYbank, Ant Group（蚂蚁集团MYbank）；School of Computer Science, Fudan University（复旦大学计算机学院）；School of Data Science, Fudan University（复旦大学数据科学学院）
Let's Simplify Step by Step: Guiding LLM Towards Multilingual Unsupervised Proficiency-Controlled Sentence Simplification
Department of Computer Science, School of Information Science and Technology, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies（计算机科学系，信息科学与技术学院，广东外语外贸大学）；College of Intelligence and Computing, Tianjin University（智能与计算学院，天津大学）；Lionrock AI Lab, China Merchants Research Institute of Advanced Technology（Lionrock AI实验室，中国远洋科技研究院）
Alif: Advancing Urdu Large Language Models via Multilingual Synthetic Data Distillation
University of British Columbia（不列颠哥伦比亚大学）；Texas Tech University（德克萨斯技术大学）；Institute for the Future of Education, Tecnológico de Monterrey（教育未来研究所，墨西哥蒙特雷技术学院）
The Emergence of Abstract Thought in Large Language Models Beyond Any Language
National University of Singapore（新加坡国立大学）；Salesforce AI Research（Salesforce AI研究院）；Peking University（北京大学）；Singapore University of Technology and Design（新加坡科技设计大学）
MathMist: A Parallel Multilingual Benchmark Dataset for Mathematical Problem Solving and Reasoning
BRAC University（布拉克大学）；United International University（国际联合大学）；Qatar Computing Research Institute（卡塔尔计算研究所）；Center for Computational & Data Sciences, Independent University, Bangladesh（计算与数据科学中心，独立大学，孟加拉国）；Amazon GenAI（亚马逊生成人工智能）；University of Virginia（弗吉尼亚大学）
