With the rapid development of deep learning technology in the past decade, appearance-based gaze estimation has attracted great attention from both computer vision and human-computer interaction research communities. Fascinating methods were proposed with variant mechanisms including soft attention, hard attention, two-eye asymmetry, feature disentanglement, rotation consistency, and contrastive learning. Most of these methods take the single-face or multi-region as input, yet the basic architecture of gaze estimation has not been fully explored. In this paper, we reveal the fact that tuning a few simple parameters of a ResNet architecture can outperform most of the existing state-of-the-art methods for the gaze estimation task on three popular datasets. With our extensive experiments, we conclude that the stride number, input image resolution, and multi-region architecture are critical for the gaze estimation performance while their effectiveness dependent on the quality of the input face image. We obtain the state-of-the-art performances on three datasets with 3.64 on ETH-XGaze, 4.50 on MPIIFaceGaze, and 9.13 on Gaze360 degrees gaze estimation error by taking ResNet-50 as the backbone.
Appearance-based gaze estimation has achieved significant improvement by using deep learning. However, many deep learning-based methods suffer from the vulnerability property, i.e., perturbing the raw image using noise confuses the gaze estimation models. Although the perturbed image visually looks similar to the original image, the gaze estimation models output the wrong gaze direction. In this paper, we investigate the vulnerability of appearance-based gaze estimation. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the vulnerability of gaze estimation to be found. We systematically characteri…
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）
Appearance-based gaze estimation provides relatively unconstrained gaze tracking. However, subject-independent models achieve limited accuracy partly due to individual variations. To improve estimation, we propose a novel gaze decomposition method and a single gaze point calibration method, motivated by our finding that the inter-subject squared bias exceeds the intra-subject variance for a subject-independent estimator. We decompose the gaze angle into a subject-dependent bias term and a subject-independent term between the gaze angle and the bias. The subject-independent term is estimated by…
Max Planck Institute for Informatics（马克斯·普朗克信息学研究所）
Appearance-based gaze estimation is believed to work well in real-world settings, but existing datasets have been collected under controlled laboratory conditions and methods have been not evaluated across multiple datasets. In this work we study appearance-based gaze estimation in the wild. We present the MPIIGaze dataset that contains 213,659 images we collected from 15 participants during natural everyday laptop use over more than three months. Our dataset is significantly more variable than existing ones with respect to appearance and illumination. We also present a method for in-the-wild …
Max Planck Institute for Informatics（马克斯·普朗克信息学研究所）；Osaka University（大阪大学）
Learning-based methods are believed to work well for unconstrained gaze estimation, i.e. gaze estimation from a monocular RGB camera without assumptions regarding user, environment, or camera. However, current gaze datasets were collected under laboratory conditions and methods were not evaluated across multiple datasets. Our work makes three contributions towards addressing these limitations. First, we present the MPIIGaze that contains 213,659 full face images and corresponding ground-truth gaze positions collected from 15 users during everyday laptop use over several months. An experience s…
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）
Appearance-based gaze estimation has attracted more and more attention because of its wide range of applications. The use of deep convolutional neural networks has improved the accuracy significantly. In order to improve the estimation accuracy further, we focus on extracting better features from eye images. Relatively large changes in gaze angles may result in relatively small changes in eye appearance. We argue that current architectures for gaze estimation may not be able to capture such small changes, as they apply multiple pooling layers or other downsampling layers so that the spatial re…
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo（东京大学工业科学研究所）
Despite recent advances in appearance-based gaze estimation techniques, the need for training data that covers the target head pose and gaze distribution remains a crucial challenge for practical deployment. This work examines a novel approach for synthesizing gaze estimation training data based on monocular 3D face reconstruction. Unlike prior works using multi-view reconstruction, photo-realistic CG models, or generative neural networks, our approach can manipulate and extend the head pose range of existing training data without any additional requirements. We introduce a projective matching…
Tobii；KTH Royal Institute of Technology（皇家理工学院（KTH））
Personal variations severely limit the performance of appearance-based gaze tracking. Adapting to these variations using standard neural network model adaptation methods is difficult. The problems range from overfitting, due to small amounts of training data, to underfitting, due to restrictive model architectures. We tackle these problems by introducing the SPatial Adaptive GaZe Estimator (SPAZE). By modeling personal variations as a low-dimensional latent parameter space, SPAZE provides just enough adaptability to capture the range of personal variations without being prone to overfitting. C…
We study gaze estimation on tablets, our key design goal is uncalibrated gaze estimation using the front-facing camera during natural use of tablets, where the posture and method of holding the tablet is not constrained. We collected the first large unconstrained gaze dataset of tablet users, labeled Rice TabletGaze dataset. The dataset consists of 51 subjects, each with 4 different postures and 35 gaze locations. Subjects vary in race, gender and in their need for prescription glasses, all of which might impact gaze estimation accuracy. Driven by our observations on the collected data, we pre…
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）
Appearance-based gaze estimation from RGB images provides relatively unconstrained gaze tracking. We have previously proposed a gaze decomposition method that decomposes the gaze angle into the sum of a subject-independent gaze estimate from the image and a subject-dependent bias. This paper extends that work with a more complete characterization of the interplay between the complexity of the calibration dataset and estimation accuracy. We analyze the effect of the number of gaze targets, the number of images used per gaze target and the number of head positions in calibration data using a new…
Gaze tracking is a valuable tool with a broad range of applications in various fields, including medicine, psychology, virtual reality, marketing, and safety. Therefore, it is essential to have gaze tracking software that is cost-efficient and high-performing. Accurately predicting gaze remains a difficult task, particularly in real-world situations where images are affected by motion blur, video compression, and noise. Super-resolution has been shown to improve image quality from a visual perspective. This work examines the usefulness of super-resolution for improving appearance-based gaze tr…
Human gaze is essential for various appealing applications. Aiming at more accurate gaze estimation, a series of recent works propose to utilize face and eye images simultaneously. Nevertheless, face and eye images only serve as independent or parallel feature sources in those works, the intrinsic correlation between their features is overlooked. In this paper we make the following contributions: 1) We propose a coarse-to-fine strategy which estimates a basic gaze direction from face image and refines it with corresponding residual predicted from eye images. 2) Guided by the proposed strategy,…
Universitat de Barcelona（巴塞罗那大学）；Computer Vision Center（计算机视觉中心）；University of Calgary（卡尔加里大学）；University of Larestan（拉雷斯坦大学）
Gaze behavior is an important non-verbal cue in social signal processing and human-computer interaction. In this paper, we tackle the problem of person- and head pose-independent 3D gaze estimation from remote cameras, using a multi-modal recurrent convolutional neural network (CNN). We propose to combine face, eyes region, and face landmarks as individual streams in a CNN to estimate gaze in still images. Then, we exploit the dynamic nature of gaze by feeding the learned features of all the frames in a sequence to a many-to-one recurrent module that predicts the 3D gaze vector of the last fra…
Recently, many multi-stream gaze estimation methods have been proposed. They estimate gaze from eye and face appearances and achieve reasonable accuracy. However, most of the methods simply concatenate the features extracted from eye and face appearance. The feature fusion process has been ignored. In this paper, we propose a novel Adaptive Feature Fusion Network (AFF-Net), which performs gaze tracking task in mobile tablets. We stack two-eye feature maps and utilize Squeeze-and-Excitation layers to adaptively fuse two-eye features according to their similarity on appearance. Meanwhile, we als…
Recent studies on appearance based gaze estimation indicate the ability of Neural Networks to decode gaze information from facial images encompassing pose information. In this paper, we propose Gaze-Net: A capsule network capable of decoding, representing, and estimating gaze information from ocular region images. We evaluate our proposed system using two publicly available datasets, MPIIGaze (200,000+ images in the wild) and Columbia Gaze (5000+ images of users with 21 gaze directions observed at 5 camera angles/positions). Our model achieves a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.84$^\circ$ for Co…
Differential Contrastive Training for Gaze Estimation
Beijing Key Laboratory of Traffic Data Mining and Embodied Intelligence（北京交通大数据挖掘与具身智能重点实验室）；Beijing Jiaotong University（北京交通大学）；School of Computer Science and Technology（计算机科学与技术学院）
ETH Zurich（苏黎世联邦理工学院）；MPI for Informatics（马克斯·普朗克信息学研究所）
Conventional feature-based and model-based gaze estimation methods have proven to perform well in settings with controlled illumination and specialized cameras. In unconstrained real-world settings, however, such methods are surpassed by recent appearance-based methods due to difficulties in modeling factors such as illumination changes and other visual artifacts. We present a novel learning-based method for eye region landmark localization that enables conventional methods to be competitive to latest appearance-based methods. Despite having been trained exclusively on synthetic data, our meth…
National University of Ireland Galway（爱尔兰国立大学戈尔韦分校）；Xperi Corporation（Xperi公司）
Accurate and efficient eye gaze estimation is important for emerging consumer electronic systems such as driver monitoring systems and novel user interfaces. Such systems are required to operate reliably in difficult, unconstrained environments with low power consumption and at minimal cost. In this paper a new hardware friendly, convolutional neural network model with minimal computational requirements is introduced and assessed for efficient appearance-based gaze estimation. The model is tested and compared against existing appearance based CNN approaches, achieving better eye gaze accuracy …
Universitat de Barcelona（巴塞罗那大学）；Computer Vision Center（计算机视觉中心）；Facebook Reality Labs（Facebook现实实验室）；Texas State University（德克萨斯州立大学）
State-of-the-art appearance-based gaze estimation methods, usually based on deep learning techniques, mainly rely on static features. However, temporal trace of eye gaze contains useful information for estimating a given gaze point. For example, approaches leveraging sequential eye gaze information when applied to remote or low-resolution image scenarios with off-the-shelf cameras are showing promising results. The magnitude of contribution from temporal gaze trace is yet unclear for higher resolution/frame rate imaging systems, in which more detailed information about an eye is captured. In t…
Indian Institute of Science（印度科学学院）；GCET；M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology（M·S·拉迈亚理工学院）
Appearance-based gaze estimation systems have shown great progress recently, yet the performance of these techniques depend on the datasets used for training. Most of the existing gaze estimation datasets setup in interactive settings were recorded in laboratory conditions and those recorded in the wild conditions display limited head pose and illumination variations. Further, we observed little attention so far towards precision evaluations of existing gaze estimation approaches. In this work, we present a large gaze estimation dataset, PARKS-Gaze, with wider head pose and illumination variat…
PrivatEyes: Appearance-based Gaze Estimation Using Federated Secure Multi-Party Computation
University of Stuttgart（斯图加特大学）；Institute for Visualisation and Interactive Systems（可视化与交互系统研究所）；Institute of Information Security（信息安全研究所）；Institute for Modelling and Simulation of Biomechanical Systems（生物力学系统建模与仿真研究所）
The robustness of gaze and head pose estimation models is highly dependent on the amount of labeled data. Recently, generative modeling has shown excellent results in generating photo-realistic images, which can alleviate the need for annotations. However, adopting such generative models to new domains while maintaining their ability to provide fine-grained control over different image attributes, \eg, gaze and head pose directions, has been a challenging problem. This paper proposes CUDA-GHR, an unsupervised domain adaptation framework that enables fine-grained control over gaze and head pose…
Rather than regressing gaze direction directly from images, we show that adding a 3D shape model can: i) improve gaze estimation accuracy, ii) perform well with lower resolution inputs and iii) provide a richer understanding of the eye-region and its constituent gaze system. Specifically, we use an `eyes and nose' 3D morphable model (3DMM) to capture the eye-region 3D facial geometry and appearance and we equip this with a geometric vergence model of gaze to give an `active-gaze 3DMM'. We show that our approach achieves state-of-the-art results on the Eyediap dataset and we present an ablation…
Peng Cheng Laboratory（鹏城实验室）；The University of Tokyo（东京大学）；Beihang University（北京航空航天大学）
Appearance-based gaze estimation aims to predict the 3D eye gaze direction from a single image. While recent deep learning-based approaches have demonstrated excellent performance, they usually assume one calibrated face in each input image and cannot output multi-person gaze in real time. However, simultaneous gaze estimation for multiple people in the wild is necessary for real-world applications. In this paper, we propose the first one-stage end-to-end gaze estimation method, GazeOnce, which is capable of simultaneously predicting gaze directions for multiple faces (>10) in an image. In add…
Evaluating Sensitivity Parameters in Smartphone-Based Gaze Estimation: A Comparative Study of Appearance-Based and Infrared Eye Trackers
School of Computer, Data and Mathematical Sciences, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia（计算机、数据与数学科学学院，西悉尼大学，彭里，新南威尔士州，澳大利亚）；The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia（脑行为与发育研究所，西悉尼大学，彭里，新南威尔士州，澳大利亚）；School of Systems and Computing, University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT, Australia（系统与计算学院，新南威尔士大学，堪培拉，澳大利亚）
As a critical cue for understanding human intention, human gaze provides a key signal for Human-Computer Interaction(HCI) applications. Appearance-based gaze estimation, which directly regresses the gaze vector from eye images, has made great progress recently based on Convolutional Neural Networks(ConvNets) architecture and open-source large-scale gaze datasets. However, encoding model-based knowledge into CNN model to further improve the gaze estimation performance remains a topic that needs to be explored. In this paper, we propose HybridGazeNet(HGN), a unified framework that encodes the ge…
Unconstrained remote gaze tracking using off-the-shelf cameras is a challenging problem. Recently, promising algorithms for appearance-based gaze estimation using convolutional neural networks (CNN) have been proposed. Improving their robustness to various confounding factors including variable head pose, subject identity, illumination and image quality remain open problems. In this work, we study the effect of variable head pose on machine learning regressors trained to estimate gaze direction. We propose a novel branched CNN architecture that improves the robustness of gaze classifiers to va…
With the increase in computation power and the development of new state-of-the-art deep learning algorithms, appearance-based gaze estimation is becoming more and more popular. It is believed to work well with curated laboratory data sets, however it faces several challenges when deployed in real world scenario. One such challenge is to estimate the gaze of a person about which the Deep Learning model trained for gaze estimation has no knowledge about. To analyse the performance in such scenarios we have tried to simulate a calibration mechanism. In this work we use the MPIIGaze data set. We t…
State Key Laboratory of VR Technology and Systems, School of CSE, Beihang University（北京航空航天大学计算机科学与工程学院虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室）；Peng Cheng Laboratory（鹏城实验室）
Gaze estimation methods learn eye gaze from facial features. However, among rich information in the facial image, real gaze-relevant features only correspond to subtle changes in eye region, while other gaze-irrelevant features like illumination, personal appearance and even facial expression may affect the learning in an unexpected way. This is a major reason why existing methods show significant performance degradation in cross-domain/dataset evaluation. In this paper, we tackle the cross-domain problem in gaze estimation. Different from common domain adaption methods, we propose a domain ge…
Deep neural networks have demonstrated superior performance on appearance-based gaze estimation tasks. However, due to variations in person, illuminations, and background, performance degrades dramatically when applying the model to a new domain. In this paper, we discover an interesting gaze jitter phenomenon in cross-domain gaze estimation, i.e., the gaze predictions of two similar images can be severely deviated in target domain. This is closely related to cross-domain gaze estimation tasks, but surprisingly, it has not been noticed yet previously. Therefore, we innovatively propose to util…
Gaze redirection is the task of changing the gaze to a desired direction for a given monocular eye patch image. Many applications such as videoconferencing, films, games, and generation of training data for gaze estimation require redirecting the gaze, without distorting the appearance of the area surrounding the eye and while producing photo-realistic images. Existing methods lack the ability to generate perceptually plausible images. In this work, we present a novel method to alleviate this problem by leveraging generative adversarial training to synthesize an eye image conditioned on a targ…
Deep neural networks have significantly improved appearance-based gaze estimation accuracy. However, it still suffers from unsatisfactory performance when generalizing the trained model to new domains, e.g., unseen environments or persons. In this paper, we propose a plug-and-play gaze adaptation framework (PnP-GA), which is an ensemble of networks that learn collaboratively with the guidance of outliers. Since our proposed framework does not require ground-truth labels in the target domain, the existing gaze estimation networks can be directly plugged into PnP-GA and generalize the algorithms…
Monash University（莫纳什大学）；IIT Ropar（印度理工学院罗巴尔分校）；University of Melbourne（墨尔本大学）
Over the past few years, there has been an increasing interest to interpret gaze direction in an unconstrained environment with limited supervision. Owing to data curation and annotation issues, replicating gaze estimation method to other platforms, such as unconstrained outdoor or AR/VR, might lead to significant drop in performance due to insufficient availability of accurately annotated data for model training. In this paper, we explore an interesting yet challenging problem of gaze estimation method with a limited amount of labelled data. The proposed method distills knowledge from the lab…
University of Cambridge（剑桥大学）；Max Planck Institute for Informatics（马克斯·普朗克信息学研究所）
Images of the eye are key in several computer vision problems, such as shape registration and gaze estimation. Recent large-scale supervised methods for these problems require time-consuming data collection and manual annotation, which can be unreliable. We propose synthesizing perfectly labelled photo-realistic training data in a fraction of the time. We used computer graphics techniques to build a collection of dynamic eye-region models from head scan geometry. These were randomly posed to synthesize close-up eye images for a wide range of head poses, gaze directions, and illumination condit…
Chonnam National University（全南国立大学）；Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute（韩国电子通信研究院）
Although gaze estimation methods have been developed with deep learning techniques, there has been no such approach as aim to attain accurate performance in low-resolution face images with a pixel width of 50 pixels or less. To solve a limitation under the challenging low-resolution conditions, we propose a high-frequency attentive super-resolved gaze estimation network, i.e., HAZE-Net. Our network improves the resolution of the input image and enhances the eye features and those boundaries via a proposed super-resolution module based on a high-frequency attention block. In addition, our gaze …
Monash University（莫纳什大学）；Indian Institute of Technology Ropar（印度理工学院鲁尔基分校）；University of Melbourne（墨尔本大学）；Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute（伦斯勒理工学院）
Eye gaze analysis is an important research problem in the field of Computer Vision and Human-Computer Interaction. Even with notable progress in the last 10 years, automatic gaze analysis still remains challenging due to the uniqueness of eye appearance, eye-head interplay, occlusion, image quality, and illumination conditions. There are several open questions, including what are the important cues to interpret gaze direction in an unconstrained environment without prior knowledge and how to encode them in real-time. We review the progress across a range of gaze analysis tasks and applications…
Sapienza University of Rome（罗马第一大学）；University of Barcelona（巴塞罗那大学）；Computer Vision Center (CVC)（计算机视觉中心）
Recent joint embedding-based self-supervised methods have surpassed standard supervised approaches on various image recognition tasks such as image classification. These self-supervised methods aim at maximizing agreement between features extracted from two differently transformed views of the same image, which results in learning an invariant representation with respect to appearance and geometric image transformations. However, the effectiveness of these approaches remains unclear in the context of gaze estimation, a structured regression task that requires equivariance under geometric trans…
Estimation of 3D gaze is highly relevant to multiple fields, including but not limited to interactive systems, specialized human-computer interfaces, and behavioral research. Although recently deep learning methods have boosted the accuracy of appearance-based gaze estimation, there is still room for improvement in the network architectures for this particular task. Therefore we propose here a novel network architecture grounded on self-attention augmented convolutions to improve the quality of the learned features during the training of a shallower residual network. The rationale is that self…
