量子性测试是一种允许经典验证者认证证明者（仅）非经典性的协议。我们表明，遵循特定模板的量子性测试（该模板涵盖了诸如(Kalai et al., 2022)等近期提案）实际上能做更多事情。即，相同的协议可用于认证量子比特，这一基础构件是可认证随机性和量子计算的经典委托等应用的核心。此前，仅知基于Learning with Errors问题的困难性和使用自适应硬核(Brakerski et al., 2018)才可能实现量子比特认证。我们的框架允许仅基于后量子陷门无爪函数的存在，或基于量子全同态加密来认证量子比特。例如，这些可以从Ring Learning with Errors实例化。在技术方面，我们表明任何此类协议的量子合理性都可归约为证明一个简单算法任务的界限：非正式地说，即在协议中“同时回答两个挑战”。我们的归约形式化了这种直觉：这些协议通过利用无法对一般量子证明者进行回退的不可能性来展示量子性。这使我们能够证明(Kahanamoku-Meyer et al., 2021)和(Kalai et al., 2022)量子合理性的严格界限，表明没有任何量子多项式时间证明者能以大于$\cos^2 \fracπ{8}\approx 0.853$的概率成功。此前，仅知经典证明者成功概率的上界和量子证明者成功概率的下界。随后我们将此量子合理性证明扩展，表明接近量子合理性界限的证明者必须执行几乎反交换的测量。这便证明了证明者持有量子比特。
英文摘要：
A test of quantumness is a protocol that allows a classical verifier to certify (only) that a prover is not classical. We show that tests of quantumness that follow a certain template, which captures recent proposals such as (Kalai et al., 2022), can in fact do much more. Namely, the same protocols can be used for certifying a qubit, a building-block that stands at the heart of applications such as certifiable randomness and classical delegation of quantum computation.
Certifying qubits was previously only known to be possible based on the hardness of the Learning with Errors problem and the use of adaptive hardcore (Brakerski et al., 2018). Our framework allows certification of qubits based only on the existence of post-quantum trapdoor claw-free functions, or on quantum fully homomorphic encryption. These can be instantiated, for example, from Ring Learning with Errors.
On the technical side, we show that the quantum soundness of any such protocol can be reduced to proving a bound on a simple algorithmic task: informally, answering ``two challenges simultaneously'' in the protocol. Our reduction formalizes the intuition that these protocols demonstrate quantumness by leveraging the impossibility of rewinding a general quantum prover. This allows us to prove tight bounds on the quantum soundness of (Kahanamoku-Meyer et al., 2021) and (Kalai et al., 2022), showing that no quantum polynomial-time prover can succeed with probability larger than $\cos^2 \fracπ{8}\approx 0.853$. Previously, only an upper bound on the success probability of classical provers, and a lower bound on the success probability of quantum provers, were known. We then extend this proof of quantum soundness to show that provers that approach the quantum soundness bound must perform almost anti-commuting measurements. This certifies that the prover holds a qubit.
Physical theories constrained with local quantum structure and satisfying the no-signalling principle can allow beyond-quantum global states. In a standard Bell experiment, correlations obtained from any such beyond-quantum bipartite state can always be reproduced by quantum states and measurements, suggesting local quantum structure and no-signalling to be the axioms to isolate quantum correlations. In this letter, however, we show that if the Bell experiment is generalized to allow local quantum inputs, then beyond-quantum correlations can be generated by every beyond-quantum state. This giv…
We consider the role of quantum mechanics in a specific coherent control scenario, designing a "coherent control interferometer" as the essential tool that links coherent control to quantum fundamentals. Building upon this allows us to rigorously display the genuinely quantum nature of a generalized weak-field coherent control scenario (utilizing 1 vs. 2 photon excitation) via a Bell-CHSH test. Specifically, we propose an implementation of "quantum delayed-choice" in a bichromatic alkali atom photoionization experiment. The experimenter can choose between two complementary situations, which ar…
For a given ensemble of input and target states, the classical fidelity threshold (CFT) is the maximum valve of the averaged fidelity, and it can be achieved with a measure-and-prepare operation. This quantity can be employed to verify whether the channel is in the quantum domain or not. In a recent work by Chiribella and Xie [Phys. Rev. Lett. {\bf 110}, 213601 (2013)], it was showed that all the information about the input and target states can be equivalently described by an entangled state and an effective entanglement-braking (EB) channel, and the CFTs can be defined with the Choi matrix o…
It is nowadays accepted that truly quantum correlations can exist even in the absence of entanglement. For the case of symmetric states, a physically trivial unitary transformation can alter a quantum state from entangled to separable and vice versa. We propose to certify the presence of quantumness via an average over all physically relevant modal decompositions. We investigate extremal states for such a measure: SU(2)-coherent states possess the least quantumness whereas the opposite extreme is inhabited by states with maximally spread Majorana constellations.
In order to model and evaluate large-scale quantum systems, e.g. quantum computer and quantum annealer, it is necessary to quantify the ``quantumness" of such systems. In this paper, we discuss the dimensionless combinations of basic parameters of large, partially quantum coherent systems, which could be used to characterize their degree of quantumness. Based on analytical and numerical calculations, we suggest one such number for a system of qubits undergoing adiabatic evolution, i.e., the accessibility index. Applying it to the case of D-Wave One superconducting quantum annealing device, we …
We investigate the nonclassicality of a two-level system driven by an external time-dependent field in the presence of dephasing. We consider two criteria for nonclassicality, one based on the quantum witness built upon the no-signaling in time condition and one based on the temporal steering inequality, for a linearly driven qubit. We show that both strongly depend on the amplitude of the driving field. As a result, we demonstrate that the quantumness of the two-level system can be successfully controlled by properly tuning the driving strength. We establish in particular that maximal violati…
We investigate the decay properties of the quantumness including quantum entanglement, quantum discord and quantum coherence for two photonic qubits, which are partially entangled in their orbital angular momenta, through Kolmogorov turbulent atmosphere. It is found that the decay of quantum coherence and quantum discord may be qualitatively different from that of quantum entanglement when the initial state of two photons is not maximally entangled. We also derive two universal decay laws for quantum coherence and quantum discord, respectively, and show that the decay of quantum coherence is m…
Hybrid quantum-classical systems constitute a promising architecture for useful control strategies of quantum systems by means of a classical device. Here we provide a comprehensive study of the dynamics of various manifestations of quantumness with memory effects, identified by non-Markovianity, for a qubit controlled by a classical field and embedded in a leaky cavity. We consider both Leggett-Garg inequality and quantum witness as experimentally-friendly indicators of quantumness, also studying the geometric phase of the evolved (noisy) quantum state. We show that, under resonant qubit-clas…
We propose a scheme to characterize the non-Markovian dynamics and quantify the non-Markovianity via the non-classicality measured by the negativity of quantumness. By considering a qubit in contact with a critical Ising spin bath and introducing an ancilla, we show that revivals of negativity of quantumness indicate the non-Markovian dynamics. Furthermore, a normalized measure of non-Markovianity based on the negativity of quantumness is introduced and the influences of bath criticality, bath temperature and bath size on the non-Markovianity are discussed. It is shown that, at the critical po…
A proof of quantumness is a type of challenge-response protocol in which a classical verifier can efficiently certify the quantum advantage of an untrusted prover. That is, a quantum prover can correctly answer the verifier's challenges and be accepted, while any polynomial-time classical prover will be rejected with high probability, based on plausible computational assumptions. To answer the verifier's challenges, existing proofs of quantumness typically require the quantum prover to perform a combination of polynomial-size quantum circuits and measurements. In this paper, we give two proof …
In view of the tomographic-probability representation of quantum states, we reconsider the approach to quantumness tests of a single system developed in [Alicki and Van Ryn 2008 J. Phys. A: Math. Theor. 41 062001]. For qubits we introduce a general family of quantumness witnesses which are operators depending on an extra parameter. Spin tomogram and dual spin tomographic symbols are used to study qubit examples and the test inequalities which are shown to satisfy simple relations within the framework of the standard probability theory.
Controlling and maintaining quantum properties of an open quantum system along its evolution is essential for both fundamental and technological aims. We assess the capability of a frequency-modulated qubit embedded in a leaky cavity to exhibit enhancement of its dynamical quantum features. The qubit transition frequency is sinusoidally modulated by an external driving field. We show that a properly optimized quantum witness effectively identifies quantum coherence protection due to frequency modulation while a standard quantum witness fails. We also find an evolution speedup of the qubit thro…
We study the quantumness of correlations for ensembles of bi- and multi-partite systems and relate it to the task of quantum data hiding. Quantumness is here intended in the sense of minimum average disturbance under local measurements. We consider a very general framework, but focus on local complete von Neumann measurements as cause of the disturbance, and, later on, on the trace-distance as quantifier of the disturbance. We discuss connections with entanglement and previously defined notions of quantumness of correlations. We prove that a large class of quantifiers of the quantumness of cor…
The estimation of more than one parameter in quantum mechanics is a fundamental problem with relevant practical applications. In fact, the ultimate limits in the achievable estimation precision are ultimately linked with the non-commutativity of different observables, a peculiar property of quantum mechanics. We here consider several estimation problems for qubit systems and evaluate the corresponding quantumness R, a measure that has been recently introduced in order to quantify how much incompatible are the parameters to be estimated. In particular, R is an upper bound for the renormalized d…
We analyze the continuous measurement of two non-commuting observables for a qubit, and investigate whether the simultaneously observed noisy signals are consistent with the evolution of an equivalent classical system. Following the approach outlined by Leggett and Garg, we show that the readouts violate macrorealistic inequalities for arbitrarily short temporal correlations. Moreover, the derived inequalities are manifestly violated even in the absence of Hamiltonian evolution, unlike for Leggett-Garg inequalities that use a single continuous measurement. Such a violation should indicate the …
A recently proposed test of quantumness [R. Alicki and N. Van Ryn, J. Phys. A: Math. Theor. 41 062001 (2008)] is put into a broader mathematical and physical perspective. The notion of quantumness witness is introduced, in analogy to entanglement witness, and illustrated by examples of a single qubit and many-body systems with additive observables. We compare also our proposal with the quantumness test based on quantum correlations (entanglement) and Bell inequalities. A class of quantumness witnesses associated to the phase space representation is also discussed.
Quantum technology promises revolutionary advantages in information processing and transmission compared to classical technology; however, determining which specific resources are needed to surpass the capabilities of classical machines often remains a nontrivial problem. To address such a problem, one first needs to establish the best classical solutions, which set benchmarks that must be beaten by any implementation claiming to harness quantum features for an enhanced performance. Here we introduce and develop a self-contained formalism to obtain the ultimate, generally probabilistic benchma…
Witnessing non-classicality in the gravitational field has been claimed to be practically impossible. This constitutes a deep problem, which has even lead some researchers to question whether gravity should be quantised, due to the weakness of quantum effects. To counteract these claims, we propose a thought experiment that witnesses non-classicality of a physical system by probing it with a qubit. Remarkably, this experiment does not require any quantum control of the system, involving only measuring a single classical observable on that system. In addition, our scheme does not even assume an…
We present an implementation of photonic qubit precertification that performs the delicate task of detecting the presence of a flying photon without destroying its qubit state, allowing loss-sensitive quantum cryptography and tests of nonlocality even over long distance. By splitting an incoming single photon in two via parametric down-conversion, we herald the photon's arrival from an independent photon source while preserving its quantum information with up to $92.3\pm0.6$ % fidelity. With reduced detector dark counts, precertification will be immediately useful in quantum communication.
Experimental validation and control of quantum traits for an open quantum system are important for any quantum information purpose. We consider a traveling atom qubit as a quantum memory with adjustable velocity inside a leaky cavity, adopting a quantum witness as a figure of merit for quantumness assessment. We show that this model constitutes an inherent physical instance where the quantum witness does not work properly if not suitably optimized. We then supply the optimal intermediate blind measurements which make the quantum witness a faithful tester of quantum coherence. We thus find that…
We propose a simple test of quantumness which can decide whether for the given set of accessible experimental data the classical model is insufficient. Take two observables $ A,B$ such that for any state $ψ$ their mean values satisfy $0\leq <ψ|A|ψ>\leq <ψ|B|ψ>\leq 1$. If there exists a state $ϕ$ such that the second moments fulfill the inequality $<ϕ|A^2|ϕ> ><ϕ|B^2|ϕ>$ then the system cannot be described by the classical probabilistic scheme. An example of an optimal triple $(A,B,ϕ)$ in the case of a qubit is given.
The number of outcomes is a defining property of a quantum measurement, in particular, if the measurement cannot be decomposed into simpler measurements with fewer outcomes. Importantly, the number of outcomes of a quantum measurement can be irreducibly higher than the dimension of the system. The certification of this property is possible in a semi-device-independent way either based on a Bell-like scenario or by utilizing the simpler prepare-and-measure scenario. Here we show that in the latter scenario the minimal scheme for a certifying an irreducible three-outcome qubit measurement requir…
In [M. Piani et al., arXiv:1103.4032 (2011)] an activation protocol was introduced which maps the general non-classical (multipartite) correlations between given systems into bipartite entanglement between the systems and local ancillae by means of a potentially highly entangling interaction. Here, we study how this activation protocol can be used to entangle the starting systems themselves via entanglement swapping through a measurement on the ancillae. Furthermore, we bound the relative entropy of quantumness (a naturally arising measure of non-classicality in the scheme of Piani et al. abov…
There exists an increasing evidence supporting the picture of the Josephson junction (JJ) as a "macroscopic quantum system". On the other hand the interpretation of experimental data strongly depends on the assumed theoretical model. We analyse the possible states of a Cooper pair box ("charge qubit") for the two types of models : two-mode Bose-Hubbard model with its large $N$ aproximations and the many-body description within the mean-field approximation (Gross-Pitaevski equation). While the first class of models supports the picture of JJ being a quantum subsystem of a single degree of freed…
Quantum coherence is a fundamental aspect of quantum physics and plays a central role in quantum information science. This essential property of the quantum states could be fragile under the influence of the quantum operations. The extent to which quantum coherence is diminished depends both on the channel and the incoherent basis. Motivated by this, we propose a measure of nonclassicality of a quantum channel as the average quantum coherence of the state space after the channel acts on, minimized over all orthonormal basis sets of the state space. Utilizing the squared $l_1$-norm of coherence…
Certifying localizable quantum properties with constant sample complexity
Center for Quantum Information, Institute for Interdisciplinary Information Sciences, Tsinghua University（清华大学交叉信息研究院量子信息中心）；Institute for Interdisciplinary Information Sciences, Tsinghua University（清华大学交叉信息研究院）；Yenching Academy, Peking University（北京大学燕京学堂）；Yau Mathematical Sciences Center, Tsinghua University（清华大学丘成桐数学科学中心）
Dissimilar notions of quantum correlations have been established, each being motivated through particular applications in quantum information science and each competing for being recognized as the most relevant measure of quantumness. In this contribution, we experimentally realize a form of quantum correlation that exists even in the absence of entanglement and discord. We certify the presence of such quantum correlations via negativities in the regularized two-mode Glauber-Sudarshan function. Our data show compatibility with an incoherent mixture of orthonormal photon-number states, ruling o…
We introduce a design of a superconducting flux qubit capable of holding a full magnetic flux quantum $ϕ_{0}$, which arguably is an essential property for applications in charged particle optics. The qubit comprises a row of $N$ constituent qubits, which hold a fractional magnetic flux quantum $ϕ_{0}/N$. Insights from physics of the transverse-field Ising chain reveal that properly designed interaction between these constituent qubits enables their collective behavior while also maintaining the overall quantumness.
We introduce the concept of degree of quantumness in quantum synchronization, a measure of the quantum nature of synchronization in quantum systems. Following techniques from quantum information, we propose the number of non-commuting observables that synchronize as a measure of quantumness. This figure of merit is compatible with already existing synchronization measurements, and it captures different physical properties. We illustrate it in a quantum system consisting of two weakly interacting cavity-qubit systems, which are coupled via the exchange of bosonic excitations between the cavitie…
In the present report we discuss measures of classicality/quantumness of states of finite-dimensional quantum systems, which are based on a deviation of quasiprobability distributions from true statistical distributions. Particularly, the dependence of the global indicator of classicality on the assigned geometry of a quantum state space is analysed for a whole family of Wigner quasiprobability representations. General considerations are exemplified by constructing the global indicator of classicality/quantumness for the Hilbert-Schmidt, Bures and Bogoliubov-Kubo-Mori ensembles of qubits and q…
Increasingly sophisticated quantum computers motivate the exploration of their abilities in certifying genuine quantum phenomena. Here, we demonstrate the power of state-of-the-art IBM quantum computers in correlation experiments inspired by quantum networks. Our experiments feature up to 12 qubits and require the implementation of paradigmatic Bell-State Measurements for scalable entanglement-swapping. First, we demonstrate quantum correlations that defy classical models in up to nine-qubit systems while only assuming that the quantum computer operates on qubits. Harvesting these quantum adva…
A model of a quantum measurement process is presented: a system consisting of a qubit in a superposition interacts with a measuring apparatus consisting of a N qubit state. Looking at the emerging, effective description of the apparatus given by the action of a coarse-graining channel, we have been able to recover information about the superposition coefficients of the system.We have also been able to visualize the death of quantum correlations between system and apparatus and the death of quantum coherences in the apparatus' effective state, in the limit of a strong coarse-graining action - a…
We consider the problem of testing the dimension of uncharacterised classical and quantum systems in a prepare-and-measure setup. Here we assume the preparation and measurement devices to be independent, thereby making the problem non-convex. We present a simple method for generating nonlinear dimension witnesses for systems of arbitrary dimension. The simplest of our witnesses is highly robust to technical imperfections, and can certify the use of qubits in the presence of arbitrary noise and arbitrarily low detection efficiency. Finally, we show that this witness can be used to certify the p…
The ultimate goal of the classicality programme is to quantify the amount of quantumness of certain processes. Here, classicality is studied for a restricted type of process: quantum information processing (QIP). Under special conditions, one can force some qubits of a quantum computer into a classical state without affecting the outcome of the computation. The minimal set of conditions is described and its structure is studied. Some implications of this formalism are the increase of noise robustness, a proof of the quantumness of mixed state quantum computing and a step forward in understandi…
So far, super quantum discord has been calculated explicitly only for Bell-diagonal states and expressions for more general quantum states are not known. In this paper, we derive explicit expressions for super quantum discord for a larger class of two-qubit states, namely, a 4-parameter family of two-qubit states. We observe that, weak measurements obtain more quantumness of correlations than strong measurements. As an application, the dynamic behavior of the super quantum discord under decoherence channel is investigated. We find that, the super quantum discord decreases monotonically as a fu…
We want to certify in a black box scenario that two parties simulating the teleportation of a qubit are really using quantum resources. If active compensation is part of the simulation, perfect teleportation can be faked with purely classical means. If active compensation is not implemented, a classical simulation is necessarily imperfect: in this case, we provide bounds for certification of quantumness using only the observed statistics. The usual figure of merit, namely the average fidelity of teleportation, turns out to be too much of a coarse-graining of the available statistical informati…
Adiabatic quantum computation (AQC) is a promising counterpart of universal quantum computation, based on the key concept of quantum annealing (QA). QA is claimed to be at the basis of commercial quantum computers and benefits from the fact that the detrimental role of decoherence and dephasing seems to have poor impact on the annealing towards the ground state. While many papers show interesting optimization results with a sizable number of qubits, a clear evidence of a full quantum coherent behavior during the whole annealing procedure is still lacking. In this paper we show that quantum non…
Quantum resources lie at the core of quantum computation as they are responsible for the computational advantage in many tasks. The complementary relations are a pathway to understanding how the physical quantities are related. Here it was shown that there is a complementary relationship that evolves quantumness of a two qubits state and the degree of entanglement, respectively measured by Roughness and Concurrence. It was shown that there is a $\mathbb{R}^2$ surface that characterizes these quantities and can be understood as a projection of the Bloch Sphere. The distribution of states on the…
Certifying almost all quantum states with few single-qubit measurements
California Institute of Technology（加州理工学院）；Google Quantum AI（谷歌量子人工智能）；Massachusetts Institute of Technology（麻省理工学院）；AWS Center for Quantum Computing（亚马逊云科技量子计算中心）
Quantum gates in experiment are inherently prone to errors that need to be characterized before they can be corrected. Full characterization via quantum process tomography is impractical and often unnecessary. For most practical purposes, it is enough to estimate more general quantities such as the average fidelity. Here we use a unitary 2-design and twirling protocol for efficiently estimating the average fidelity of Clifford gates, to certify a 7-qubit entangling gate in a nuclear magnetic resonance quantum processor. Compared with more than $10^8$ experiments required by full process tomogr…
By employing Pauli measurements, we present some nonlinear steering criteria applicable for arbitrary two-qubit quantum systems and optimized ones for symmetric quantum states. These criteria provide sufficient conditions to witness steering, which can recover the previous elegant results for some well-known states. Compared with the existing linear steering criterion and entropic criterion, ours can certify more steerable states without selecting measurement settings or correlation weights, which can also be used to verify entanglement as all steerable quantum states are entangled.
