The recalibration of the sunspot number series, the primary long-term record of the solar cycle, requires the recovery of the entire collection of raw sunspot counts collected by the Zurich Observatory for the production of this index between 1849 and 1980. Here, we report about the major progresses accomplished recently in the construction of this global digital sunspot number database, and we derive global statistics of all the individual observers and professional observatories who provided sunspot data over more than 130 years. First, we can announce the full recovery of long-lost source-data tables covering the last 34 years between 1945 and 1979, and we describe the unique information available in those tables. We then also retrace the evolution of the core observing team in Zurich and of the auxiliary stations. In 1947, we find a major disruption in the composition of both the Zurich team and the international network of auxiliary stations. This sharp transition is unique in the history of the Zurich Observatory and coincides with the main scale-jump found in the original Zurich sunspot number series, the so-called "Waldmeier" jump. This adds key historical evidence explaining why methodological changes introduced progressively in the early $20^{th}$ century could play a role precisely at that time. We conclude on the remaining steps needed to fully complete this new sunspot data resource.
Catalogues of sunspots have been available with useful information about sunspots or sunspot groups for approximately the last 150 years. However, the task of merging these catalogues is not simple. In this paper, a method is suggested of converting the types of sunspot groups that were proposed by Cortie (1901) into the well-known Zurich types of sunspot groups. To achieve this, the sunspot catalogue of the Valencia University Observatory (from 1920 to 1928) was used in addition to the descriptions proposed by Cortie. To assess the quality of this conversion scheme, the Zurich type was comput…
In this study, we used two methods to investigate the periodic behavior of sunspot counts in four categories for the time period January 1986-October 2013. These categories include the counts from simple (A and B), medium (C), large (D, E, and F), and final (H) sunspot groups. We used: i) the Multi-taper Method with red noise approximation, and ii) the Morlet wavelet transform for periodicity analysis. Our main findings are: (1) the solar rotation periodicity of about 25 to 37 days, which is of obvious significance, is found in all groups with at least a 95% significance level; (2) the periodi…
The Swiss Federal Observatory, which had been founded in 1863 by Rudolf Wolf, was dissolved in connection with the retirement of Max Waldmeier in 1979. The determination of the Zurich sunpot number, which had been a cornerstone activity of the observatory, was then discontinued by ETH Zurich. A smooth transition of the responsibility for the sunspot number from Zurich to Brussels could however be achieved in 1980, through which it was possible to avoid a discontinuity in this important time series. Here we describe the circumstances that led to the termination in Zurich, how Brussels was chose…
Sunspot observations and counting are carried out at the Specola Solare Ticinese in Locarno since 1957 when it was built as an external observing station of the Zurich observatory. When in 1980 the data center responsibility was transferred from ETH Zurich to the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Brussels, the observations in Locarno continued and Specola Solare Ticinese got the role of pilot station. The data collected at Specola cover now the last 6 solar cycles. The aim of this presentation is to discuss and give an overview about the Specola data collection, the applied counting method and t…
Catalogs of the Zurich Observatory contain positional information on sunspots, prominences and faculae in late 19th and early 20th centuries. This database is given in handwritten tabular form and was not systematically analysed earlier. It is different from the sunspot number time series made in Zurich and was obtained with a larger telescope. We trained a neural-network model for handwritten text recognition and present the database of reconstructed coordinates. The database obtained connects the earlier observations by Spörer with later programs of the 20th century and supplements the sunsp…
Specola Solare Ticinese is an observatory dedicated to Sunspot Number counting, which was constructed in 1957 in Locarno, Southern Switzerland, as an external observing station of the Zurich Federal Observatory. When in 1981 the responsibility of the determination of the International Sunspot Number was assumed by the Royal Observatory of Belgium, Specola Solare Ticinese was given the role of pilot station, with the aim of preserving the continuity in the counting method. We report the observing procedure and counting rules applied in Locarno.
We investigate solar activity by focusing on double maxima in solar cycles and try to estimate the shape of the current solar cycle (Cycle 24) during its maximum. We analyzed data for Solar Cycle 24 by using Learmonth Solar Observatory sunspot group data since 2008. All sunspot groups (SGs) recorded during this time interval were separated into two groups: The first group includes small SGs [A, B, C, H, classes by the Zurich classification], and the second group consists of large SGs [D, E, and F]. We then calculated small and large sunspot group numbers, their sunspot numbers [SSN] and Zurich…
In 2015 the calculation of the International (Zurich) sunspot number was cancelled, and it was replaced by a new "recalibrated" series. A new data series was proposed also for the Group sunspot number. As a result, these two series which originally differed mainly in their long-term trends, were "reconciled", and the long-term trends in both of them were minimized. These changes led to new reconstructions of the long-term variations of solar irradiance, and to reconsidering the impact of the solar activity variations on climate change. Here we use data for the number of sunspots and the number…
More than 70 years ago it was recognised that ionospheric F2-layer critical frequencies $foF2$ had a strong relationship to sunspot number. Using historic datasets from the Slough and Washington ionosondes, we evaluate the best statistical fits of $foF2$ to sunspot numbers (at each Universal Time [UT] separately) in order to search for drifts and abrupt changes in the fit residuals over Solar Cycles 17 - 21. Polynomial fits are made both with and without allowance for the white-light facular area, which has been reported as being associated with cycle-to-cycle changes in the sunspot number - $…
Here we analyze solar activity by focusing on time variations of the number of sunspot groups (SGs) as a function of their modified Zurich class. We analyzed data for solar cycles 2023 by using Rome (cycles 2021) and Learmonth Solar Observatory (cycles 2223) SG numbers. All SGs recorded during these time intervals were separated into two groups. The first group includes small SGs (A, B, C, H, and J classes by Zurich classification) and the second group consists of large SGs (D, E, F, and G classes). We then calculated small and large SG numbers from their daily mean numbers as observed on the …
We use 5 test data series to quantify putative discontinuities around 1946 in 5 annual-mean sunspot number or group number sequences. The series tested are: the original and new versions of the Wolf/Zurich/International sunspot number composite [$R_{ISNv1}$ and $R_{ISNv2}$] ; the corrected version of $R_{ISNv1}$ [$R_C$]; the backbone group number [$R_{BB}$]; and the group number composite [$R_{UEA}$]. The test data are: the group number $N_G$ and total sunspot area $A_G$ from the RGO photoheliographic data; the CaK index from re-analysis of MWO CaII K spectroheliograms; the group number from t…
We present simultaneous photospheric and chromospheric observations of the trailing sunspot in NOAA 10904 during a weak flare eruption (GOES magnitude B7.8), obtained with the Swedish Solar Telescope (SST) in La Palma, Canary Islands. High-resolution \ion{Ca}{ii} $H$ images show a typical two-ribbon structure that has been hitherto only known for larger flares, and the flare appears in a confined region that is discernible by a bright border. The underlying photosphere shows a disturbed penumbral structure with intersecting branches of penumbral filaments. High-resolution Doppler- and vector-m…
In 1981, the production of the international Sunspot Number moved from the Zürich Observatory to the Royal Observatory of Belgium, marking a very important transition in the history of the Sunspot Number. Those recent decades are particularly important for linking recent modern solar indices and fluxes and the past Sunspot Number series. However, large variations have been recently identified in the scale of the Sunspot Number between 1981 and the present. Here, we reconstruct a new average Sunspot Number series $S_N$ using long-duration stations between 1981 and 2015. We also extend this reco…
We compare four sunspot-number data sequences against geomagnetic and terrestrial auroral observations. The comparisons are made for the original SIDC composite of Wolf-Zurich-International sunspot number [$R_{ISNv1}$], the group sunspot number [$R_{G}$] by Hoyt and Schatten (Solar Phys., 1998), the new "backbone" group sunspot number [$R_{BB}$] by Svalgaard and Schatten (Solar Phys., 2016), and the "corrected" sunspot number [$R_{C}$] by Lockwood at al. (J.G.R., 2014). Each sunspot number is fitted with terrestrial observations, or parameters derived from terrestrial observations to be linear…
Kanzelhöhe Observatory (KSO) was founded during World War II by the "Deutsche Luftwaffe" (German Airforces) as one station of a network of observatories, which should provide information on solar activity in order to better assess the actual conditions of the Earth's ionosphere in terms of radio wave propagation. The solar observations began in 1943 with photographs of the photosphere, drawings of sunspots, plage regions and faculae, as well as patrol observations of the solar corona. At the beginning all data was sent to Freiburg (Germany). After WWII international cooperation was established…
We have analysed the combined Greenwich and Solar Optical Observing Network (SOON) sunspot group data during the period of 1874-2011 and determined variations in the annual numbers (counts) of the small, large and big sunspot groups (these classifications are made on the basis of the maximum areas of the sunspot groups). We found that the amplitude of an even-numbered cycle of the number of large groups is smaller than that of its immediately following odd-numbered cycle. This is consistent with the well known Gnevyshev and Ohl rule or G-O rule of solar cycles, generally described by using the…
The focus of this article is a re-count of Richard Carrington's original sunspot observations from his book drawings (Carrington,1863) by an observer from the World data Center-SILSO network, Thomas H. Teague(UK). This modern recount will enable the use of Carrington's observations in the re-computation of the entire Sunspot Number series in a way Carrington's original counts (Casas and Vaquero,2014) did not. here we present comparison studies of the new recounted series with contemporary observations, new data extracted from the Journals of the Zurich Observatory and other sources of Carringt…
The subject of this paper is the existence and stability of solar cycles with duration in the range of 20-250 years. Five type of data series are used: 1) The Zurich series (1749-2009), the mean annual International sunspot number Ri; 2) The Group sunspot number series Rh (1610-1995); 3) The simulated extended sunspot Rsi number from Extended time series of Solar Activity Indices (ESAI) (1090- 2002); 4) The simulated extended geomagnetic aa-index from ESAI (1099-2002); 5) The Meudon filament series (1919-1991) (it is used only particularly). Data series are smoothed over 11 years and supercent…
We present the results obtained by analyzing high spatial and spectral resolution data of the solar photosphere acquired by the CRisp Imaging SpectroPolarimeter at the Swedish Solar Telescope on 6 August 2011, relevant to a large sunspot with a light bridge (LB) observed in NOAA AR 11263. These data are complemented by simultaneous Hinode Spectropolarimeter (SP) observation in the Fe I 630.15 nm and 630.25 nm lines. The continuum intensity map shows a discontinuity of the radial distribution of the penumbral filaments in correspondence with the LB, which shows a dark lane (about 0.3" wide and …
On the base of the most qualitative GOES satellites data for the period AD 1980-2009 and multiple regression model the "synthetic" series of the monthly numbers of soft X-ray flares (separately for the classes C, M, X and total numbers) were built for the epoch AD 1968-2009. The earlier parts of the series before AD 1980 were derived on the base of the mentioned model . The monthly numbers of radio bursts at four frequencies (29-33, 609, 8800 and 15400 MHz) and the radio flux at 2800 MHz (F10.7) are used as factors. The relationships are very strong (correlation coefficients R are from 0.79 to…
The subject of this paper is the existence and stability of solar cycles with durations in the range of 20-250 years. Five types of data series are used: 1) The Zurich series (1749-2009 AD), the mean annual International sunspot number Ri, 2) The Group sunspot number series Rh (1610-1995 AD), 3) The simulated extended sunspot Rsi number from Extended time series of Solar Activity Indices (ESAI) (1090-2002 AD), 4) The simulated extended geomagnetic aa-index from ESAI (1099-2002 AD), 5) The Meudon filament series (1919-1991 AD) (it is used only particularly). Data series are smoothed over 11 yea…
