These days, the development of smart cities, specifically in location-aware, latency-sensitive, and security-crucial applications (such as emergency fire events, patient health monitoring, or real-time manufacturing) heavily depends on a more advance computing paradigms that can address these requirements. In this regard, fog computing, a robust cloud computing complement, plays a preponderant role by virtue of locating closer to the end-devices. Nonetheless, utilized approaches in smart cities are frequently cloud-based, which causes not only the security and time-sensitive services to suffer but also its flexibility and reliability to be restricted. So as to obviate the limitations of cloud and other related computing paradigms such as edge computing, this paper proposes a systematic literature review (SLR) for the state-of-the-art fog-based approaches in smart cities. Furthermore, according to the content of the reviewed researches, a taxonomy is proposed, falls into three classes, including service-based, resource-based, and application-based. This SLR also investigates the evaluation factors, used tools, evaluation methods, merits, and demerits of each class. Types of proposed algorithms in each class are mentioned as well. Above all else, by taking various perspectives into account, comprehensive and distinctive open issues and challenges are provided via classifying future trends and issues into practical sub-classes.
The present manuscript concentrates on the application of Fog computing to a Smart Grid Network that comprises of a Distribution Generation System known as a Microgrid. It addresses features and advantages of a smart grid. Two computational methods for on-demand processing based on shared information resources is discussed. Fog Computing acts as an additional layer of computational and/or communication nodes that offload the Cloud backend from multi-tasking while dealing with large amounts of data. Both Fog computing and Cloud computing hierarchical architecture is compared with respect to eff…
The Internet of Things (IoT) aims to connect billions of smart objects to the Internet, which can bring a promising future to smart cities. These objects are expected to generate large amounts of data and send the data to the cloud for further processing, specially for knowledge discovery, in order that appropriate actions can be taken. However, in reality sensing all possible data items captured by a smart object and then sending the complete captured data to the cloud is less useful. Further, such an approach would also lead to resource wastage (e.g. network, storage, etc.). The Fog (Edge) c…
Today, wearable internet-of-things (wIoT) devices continuously flood the cloud data centers at an enormous rate. This increases a demand to deploy an edge infrastructure for computing, intelligence, and storage close to the users. The emerging paradigm of fog computing could play an important role to make wIoT more efficient and affordable. Fog computing is known as the cloud on the ground. This paper presents an end-to-end architecture that performs data conditioning and intelligent filtering for generating smart analytics from wearable data. In wIoT, wearable sensor devices serve on one end …
The smart grid utilizes many Internet of Things (IoT) applications to support its intelligent grid monitoring and control. The requirements of the IoT applications vary due to different tasks in the smart grid. In this paper, we propose a new computing paradigm to offer location-aware, latencysensitive monitoring and intelligent control for IoT applications in the smart grid. In particular, a new fog-based architecture and programming model is designed. Fog computing extends computing to the edge of a network, which has a perfect match to IoT applications. However, existing schemes can hardly …
Smart city vision brings emerging heterogeneous communication technologies such as Fog Computing (FC) together to substantially reduce the latency and energy consumption of Internet of Everything (IoE) devices running various applications. The key feature that distinguishes the FC paradigm for smart cities is that it spreads communication and computing resources over the wired/wireless access network (e.g., proximate access points and base stations) to provide resource augmentation (e.g., cyberforaging) for resource and energy-limited wired/wireless (possibly mobile) things. Moreover, smart ci…
Smart city technology is making cities more effective which is necessary for the rapid growth in urban population. With the rapid increase in advanced metering infrastructure and other digital technologies, Smart cities have become smarter with efficient electronic devices and embedded sensors based on the Internet of Things (IoT). This paper provides a comprehensive review of the smart cities concept with its components and applications. Moreover, technologies of IoT used in smart cities infrastructure and some practically implemented smart cities in the world are mentioned as exemplary imple…
The smart city is an emerging notion that is leveraging the Internet of Things (IoT) technique to achieve more comfortable, smart and controllable cities. The communications crossing domains between smart cities is indispensable to enhance collaborations. However, crossing-domain communications are more vulnerable since there are in different domains. Moreover, there are huge different devices with different computation capabilities, from sensors to the cloud servers. In this paper, we propose a lightweight two-layer blockchain mechanism for reliable crossing-domain communication in smart citi…
Blockchain has revolutionized how transactions are conducted by ensuring secure and auditable peer-to-peer coordination. This is due to both the development of decentralization, and the promotion of trust among peers. Blockchain and fog computing are currently being evaluated as potential support for software and a wide spectrum of applications, ranging from banking practices and digital transactions to cyber-physical systems. These systems are designed to work in highly complex, sometimes even adversarial, environments, and to synchronize heterogeneous machines and manufacturing facilities in…
The rapid development of vehicles on-board units and the proliferation of autonomous vehicles in modern cities create a potential for a new fog computing paradigm, referred to as vehicular fog computing (VFC). In this paper, we propose an architecture that integrates a vehicular fog (VF) composed of vehicles clustered in a parking lot with a fixed fog node at the access network and the central cloud. We investigate the problem of energy efficient software matching in the VF considering different approaches to deploy software packages in vehicles.
Recent years have disclosed a remarkable proliferation of compute-intensive applications in smart cities. Such applications continuously generate enormous amounts of data which demand strict latency-aware computational processing capabilities. Although edge computing is an appealing technology to compensate for stringent latency related issues, its deployment engenders new challenges. In this survey, we highlight the role of edge computing in realizing the vision of smart cities. First, we analyze the evolution of edge computing paradigms. Subsequently, we critically review the state-of-the-ar…
Smart cities are an actual trend being pursued by research that, fundamentally, tries to improve city's management on behalf of a better human quality of live. This paper proposes a new autonomic complementary approach for smart cities management. It is argued that smart city management systems with autonomic characteristics will improve and facilitate management functionalities in general. A framework is also presented as use case considering specific application scenarios like smart-health, smart-grid, smart-environment and smart-streets.
The Tactile Internet (TI) is an emerging technology next to the Internet of Things (IoT). It is a revolution to develop the smart cities, communities and cultures in the future. This technology will allow the real-time interaction between human and machines as well as machine-to-machine with the 1ms challenge to achieve in round trip latency. The term TI is defined by International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in August 2014. The TI provides fast, reliable, secure and available internet network that is the requirements of the smart cities in 5G. Tactile internet can develop the part of world …
Cloud Computing (CC) serves to be a key driver for fulfilling the store and compute requirements of a modern Smart Grid (SG). However, since the datacenters are deployed in concentrated and far remote areas, it fails to guarantee the quality of experience (QoE) attributes for the SG services, viz. latency, bandwidth, energy consumption, and network cost. Fog Computing (FC) extends the processing capabilities into the edge of the network, offering location-awareness, low latency, and latency-sensitive analytics for mission critical requirements of SG. In this work, we first examine the current …
5G is the fifth generation wireless network, with a set of characteristics, e.g., high bandwidth and data rates. The scenarios of using 5G include enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC), and ultra-Reliable and Low-Latency Communications (uRLLC). 5G is expected to support a wide variety of applications. We conducted a systematic mapping study that covers the literature published between Jan 2012 and Dec 2019 regarding using 5G in smart cities. The scenarios, architecture, technologies, challenges, and lessons learned of using 5G in smart cities are summariz…
With smart devices, particular smartphones, becoming our everyday companions, the ubiquitous mobile Internet and computing applications pervade people daily lives. With the surge demand on high-quality mobile services at anywhere, how to address the ubiquitous user demand and accommodate the explosive growth of mobile traffics is the key issue of the next generation mobile networks. The Fog computing is a promising solution towards this goal. Fog computing extends cloud computing by providing virtualized resources and engaged location-based services to the edge of the mobile networks so as to …
Today, the advancements in urban technology have transformed into the concept of smart cities. These smart cities are envisioned to be heavily dependent on wireless sensor networks and internet of things. In this context, a number of routing protocols have been proposed in literature for use in sensor networks. We articulate on why these routing protocols need to be segregated on the basis of their operational mechanism and utility, so that selection of these protocols results in network longevity and improved performance. We classify these protocols in four categories in terms of topology inc…
In this paper, we discuss the physical web projects based on network proximity for Smart Cities. In general, the Physical Web is an approach for connecting any physical object to the web. With this approach, we can navigate and control physical objects in the world surrounding mobile devices. Alternatively, we can execute services on mobile devices, depending on the surrounding physical objects. Technically, there are different ways to enumerate physical objects. In this paper, we will target the models based on the wireless proximity.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSs) providing vehicle-related statistical data are one of the key components for future smart cities. In this context, knowledge about the current traffic flow is used for travel time reduction and proactive jam avoidance by intelligent traffic control mechanisms. In addition, the monitoring and classification of vehicles can be used in the field of smart parking systems. The required data is measured using networks with a wide range of sensors. Nevertheless, in the context of smart cities no existing solution for traffic flow detection and vehicle classif…
This work presents an innovative, multidisciplinary and cost-effective ecosystem of ICT solutions able to collect, process and distribute geo-referenced information about the influence of pollution and micro-climatic conditions on the quality of life in Smart Cities. The system has been developed and experimentally evaluated in the framework of the research project SHE, co-funded by the Tuscany Region (Italy). Specifically, an innovative monitoring network has been developed, constituted by fixed and mobile sensor nodes, which provided comparable measurements in stationary and mobile condition…
Rapid urbanization burdens city infrastructure and creates the need for local governments to maximize the usage of resources to serve its citizens. Smart city projects aim to alleviate the urbanization problem by deploying a vast amount of Internet-of-things (IoT) devices to monitor and manage environmental conditions and infrastructure. However, smart city projects can be extremely expensive to deploy and manage. A significant portion of the expense is a result of providing Internet connectivity via 5G or WiFi to IoT devices. This paper proposes the use of delay tolerant networks (DTNs) as a …
With smart devices, particular smartphones, becoming our everyday companions, the ubiquitous mobile Internet and computing applications pervade people's daily lives. With the surge demand on high-quality mobile services at anywhere, how to address the ubiquitous user demand and accommodate the explosive growth of mobile traffics is the key issue of the next generation mobile networks. The Fog computing is a promising solution towards this goal. Fog computing extends cloud computing by providing virtualized resources and engaged location-based services to the edge of the mobile networks so as t…
The development of smart cities and their fast-paced deployment is resulting in the generation of large quantities of data at unprecedented rates. Unfortunately, most of the generated data is wasted without extracting potentially useful information and knowledge because of the lack of established mechanisms and standards that benefit from the availability of such data. Moreover, the high dynamical nature of smart cities calls for new generation of machine learning approaches that are flexible and adaptable to cope with the dynamicity of data to perform analytics and learn from real-time data. …
IoT emerges as an unprecedented paradigm with great potential for changing how people interact, think and live. It is making existing Internet services feasible in ways that were previously impossible, as well as paving the way for new situation-awareness applications suitable for smart cities, such as realtime video surveillance, traffic control, and emergency management. These applications will typically rely on large numbers of IoT devices to collect and collaboratively process streamed data to enable real-time decision making. In this paper, we introduce the concept of Semantic Virtual Spa…
The dramatic advances in wireless communications and electronics have enabled the development of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). WSNs consist of many affordable and portable sensor nodes for collecting data from the environment. In this article, we address management requirements of WSNs through presenting some key management scenarios in the Smart Cities context, such as intelligent transportation systems, smart grids and smart buildings. The limited resources and heterogeneous characteristics of WSNs pose new challenges in network management, which include the presence of various faults, th…
In this Chapter, a software-defined network (SDN)-based framework for future smart cities has been proposed and discussed. It also comprises a distributed addressing scheme to facilitate the allocation of addresses to devices in the smart city dynamically. The framework is dynamic and modules can be added and omitted by a centralized controlling unit without disturbing the other components of the framework and other modules may be updated accordingly. In the proposed addressing scheme, a new Internet of Things (IoT) device will receive an IP address from one of their existing neighboring peer …
Recent literature suggests that the Internet of Things (IoT) scales much better in an Information-Centric Networking (ICN) model instead of the current host-centric Internet Protocol (IP) model. In particular, the Named Data Networking (NDN) project (one of the ICN architecture flavors) offers features exploitable by IoT applications, such as stateful forwarding, in- network caching, and built-in assurance of data provenance. Though NDN-based IoT frameworks have been proposed, none have adequately and holistically addressed concerns related to secure onboarding and routing. Additionally, emerg…
Smart city projects aim to enhance the management of city infrastructure by enabling government entities to monitor, control and maintain infrastructure efficiently through the deployment of Internet-of-things (IoT) devices. However, the financial burden associated with smart city projects is a detriment to prospective smart cities. A noteworthy factor that impacts the cost and sustainability of smart city projects is providing cellular Internet connectivity to IoT devices. In response to this problem, this paper explores the use of public transportation network nodes and mules, such as bus-st…
Industry 4.0 applications foster new business opportunities but they also pose new and challenging requirements, such as low latency communications and highly reliable systems. They enable to exploit novel wireless technologies (5G), but it would also be crucial to rely on architectures that appropriately support them. Thus, the combination of fog and cloud computing is emerging as one potential solution. It can dynamically allocate the workload depending on the specific needs of each application. Our main goal is to provide a highly reliable and dynamic architecture, which minimizes the time …
On the Optimizing of Wireless Networks and toward improving the future 5th Generation mobile Network Infrastructure, we propose a novel infrastructure that can be the next Smart City Network. Our proposed Infrastructure takes into consideration most future demands and challenges, includes Capacity, Reliability, Scalability, and Flexibility. To deal with this issues we propose a wireless network infrastructure that is based on latest technologies of Massive MIMO systems. We further extend our infrastructure with many smart features, to be capable of coping with Cloud Computing, Smartphones, IoT…
The paper discusses the current state and development proposals for Smart Cities and Future Internet projects. Definitions of a Smart City can vary but usually tend to suggest the use of innovative Info-Communication technologies such as the Internet of Things and Web 2.0 to deliver more effective and efficient public services that improve living and working conditions and create more sustainable urban environments. Our goal is to analyze the current proposals from the developer's point of view, highlight the really new elements, the positions borrowed from the existing tools as well as propos…
The "Smart City" (SC) concept revolves around the idea of embodying cutting-edge ICT solutions in the very fabric of future cities, in order to offer new and better services to citizens while lowering the city management costs, both in monetary, social, and environmental terms. In this framework, communication technologies are perceived as subservient to the SC services, providing the means to collect and process the data needed to make the services function. In this paper, we propose a new vision in which technology and SC services are designed to take advantage of each other in a symbiotic m…
Ubiquitous information service converged by different types of heterogeneous networks is one of fundamental functions for smart cities. Considering the deployment of 5G ultra-dense wireless networks, the 5G converged cell-less communication networks are proposed to support mobile terminals in smart cities. To break obstacles of heterogeneous wireless networks, the 5G converged cell-less communication network is vertically converged in different tiers of heterogeneous wireless networks and horizontally converged in celled architectures of base stations/access points. Moreover, the software defi…
Fog computing has been advocated as an enabling technology for computationally intensive services in smart connected vehicles. Most existing works focus on analyzing the queueing and workload processing latencies associated with fog computing, ignoring the fact that wireless access latency can sometimes dominate the overall latency. This motivates the work in this paper, where we report on a five-month measurement study of the wireless access latency between connected vehicles and a fog/cloud computing system supported by commercially available LTE networks. We propose AdaptiveFog, a novel fra…
Data sensing and gathering is an essential task for various information-driven services in smart cities. On the one hand, Internet of Things (IoT) sensors can be deployed at certain fixed locations to capture data reliably but suffer from limited sensing coverage. On the other hand, data can also be gathered dynamically through crowdsensing contributed by voluntary users but suffer from its unreliability and the lack of incentives for users' contributions. In this paper, we explore an integrated paradigm called "hybrid sensing" that harnesses both IoT-sensing and crowdsensing in a complementar…
Smart mobility management would be an important prerequisite for future fog computing systems. In this research, we propose a learning-based handover optimization for the Internet of Vehicles that would assist the smooth transition of device connections and offloaded tasks between fog nodes. To accomplish this, we make use of machine learning algorithms to learn from vehicle interactions with fog nodes. Our approach uses a three-layer feed-forward neural network to predict the correct fog node at a given location and time with 99.2 % accuracy on a test set. We also implement a dual stacked rec…
A smart city involves critical infrastructure systems that have been digitally enabled. Increasingly, many smart city cyber-physical systems are becoming automated. The extent of automation ranges from basic logic gates to sophisticated, artificial intelligence (AI) that enables fully autonomous systems. Because of modern society's reliance on autonomous systems in smart cities, it is crucial for them to operate in a safe manner; otherwise, it is feasible for these systems to cause considerable physical harm or even death. Because smart cities could involve thousands of autonomous systems oper…
The recent demographic trends indicate towards a rapidly increasing population growth and a significant portion of this increased population now prefer to live mostly in cities. In connection with this, it has become the responsibility of the government to ensure a quality standard of living in the cities and also make sure that these facilities trickle down to the next generation. A program named Smart City Mission has been started for this purpose. With an extremely diverse population, that is only second to China in the world in terms of size, the Indian government has engaged in serious th…
University of South Florida（南佛罗里达大学）；Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida（南佛罗里达大学电气工程系）；University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA（南佛罗里达大学，美国佛罗里达州坦帕市，邮编33620）
Intelligent vehicular systems and smart city applications are the fastest growing Internet of things (IoT) implementations at a compound annual growth rate of 30%. In view of the recent advances in IoT devices and the emerging new breed of IoT applications driven by artificial intelligence (AI), fog radio access network (F-RAN) has been recently introduced for the fifth generation (5G) wireless communications to overcome the latency limitations of cloud-RAN (C-RAN). We consider the network slicing problem of allocating the limited resources at the network edge (fog nodes) to vehicular and smar…
The Institute for Computer Science and Control of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences（匈牙利科学院计算机科学与控制研究所）；General Electric (GE) Hungary Ltd.（通用电气（GE）匈牙利有限公司）
As urbanization proceeds at an astonishing rate, cities have to continuously improve their solutions that affect the safety, health and overall wellbeing of their residents. Smart city projects worldwide build on advanced sensor, information and communication technologies to help dealing with issues like air pollution, waste management, traffic optimization, and energy efficiency. The paper reports about the prototype of a smart city initiative in Budapest which applies various sensors installed on the public lighting system and a cloud-based analytical module. While the installed wireless mul…
