Global freight demand will triple between 2015 and 2050, based on the current demand pathway, as predicted in the Transport Outlook 2019. Hence, a revolutionary change in transport efficiency is urgently needed. One approach to tackle this change is to transfer the successful model of the Digital Internet for data exchange to the physical transport of goods: The so-called Physical Internet (PI, or $π$). The potential of the Physical Internet lies in dynamic routing, which increases the utilization of transport modalities, like trucks and vans, and makes transport more efficient. Previous concept transfers have identified and determined the $π$-nodes as routing entities. Here, the problem is that the $π$-nodes have no information about real-time data on transport vacancies. This leads to a great challenge for the $π$-nodes with regard to routing, in particular in determining the next best appropriate node for onward transport of the freight package. This paper evolved the state of research concept as an artifact that considers the $π$-nodes as routers in a way that it distributes and replicates real-time data to the $π$-nodes in order to enable more effective routing decisions. This real-time data is provided by vehicles, or so-called $π$-transporters, on the road. Therefore, a second artifact will be designed in which $π$-transporters take over the routing role. In order to be able to take a holistic perspective on the routing topic, the goods that are actually to be moved, the so-called $π$-containers, are also designed as routing entities in a third artifact. These three artifacts are then compared and evaluated for the consideration of real-time traffic data. This paper proposes $π$-transporters as routing entities whose software representatives negotiate freight handover points in a cloud-based marketplace.
The internet is now-a-days experiencing a stress due to some inherent problems with the main interdomain routing protocol, boarder gateway protocol (BGP), the amount of time it takes to converge, number of update message exchanged followed by a failure to stabilize, the amount of time required to get a valid alternate path following the failure, the way size of routing table increasing, and security issues like integrity and privacy of routing tables and routing updates exchanged among the routers, are of our primary concern. In our proposed research work we plan to address aforementioned issu…
While there exist compact routing schemes designed for grids, trees, and Internet-like topologies that offer routing tables of sizes that scale logarithmically with the network size, we demonstrate in this paper that in view of recent results in compact routing research, such logarithmic scaling on Internet-like topologies is fundamentally impossible in the presence of topology dynamics or topology-independent (flat) addressing. We use analytic arguments to show that the number of routing control messages per topology change cannot scale better than linearly on Internet-like topologies. We als…
Despite prevailing concerns that the current Internet interdomain routing system will not scale to meet the needs of the 21st century global Internet, networking research has not yet led to the construction of a new routing architecture with satisfactory and mathematically provable scalability characteristics. Worse, continuing empirical trends of the existing routing and topology structure of the Internet are alarming: the foundational principles of the current routing and addressing architecture are an inherently bad match for the naturally evolving structure of Internet interdomain topology…
Though objectives of trusted routing and virtual private networks (VPN) data transfer methods are to guarantee data transfer securely to from senders to receivers over public networks like Internet yet there are paramount differences between the two methods. This paper analyses their differences.
Understanding how packets are routed in Internet is significantly important to Internet measurement and modeling. The conventional solution for route simulation is based on the assumption of unweighted shortest path. However, it has been found and widely accepted that a packet in Internet is usually not transmitted along the unweighted shortest path between its source and destination. To better simulate the routing behavior of a packet, we thoroughly explore the real-world Internet routes and present a novel local information based simulation model, with a tuning parameter, which assigns weigh…
The type of business relationships between the Internet autonomous systems (AS) determines the BGP inter-domain routing. Previous works on inferring AS relationships relied on the connectivity information between ASes. In this paper we infer AS relationships by analysing the routing polices of ASes encoded in the BGP attributes Communities and the Locpref. We accumulate BGP data from RouteViews, RIPE RIS and the public Route Servers in August 2010 and February 2011. Based on the routing policies extracted from data of the two BGP attributes, we obtain AS relationships for 39% links in our data…
Wireless medium access control (MAC) and routing protocols are fundamental building blocks of the Internet of Things (IoT). As new IoT networking standards are being proposed and different existing solutions patched, evaluating the end-to-end performance of the network becomes challenging. Specific solutions designed to be beneficial, when stacked may have detrimental effects on the overall network performance. In this paper, an analysis of MAC and routing protocols for IoT is provided with focus on the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC and the IETF RPL standards. It is shown that existing routing metrics do …
A new framework to perform routing at the Autonomous System level is proposed in this paper. This mechanism, called Chain Routing, uses complete orders as its main topological unit. Since complete orders are acyclic digraphs that possess a known topology, it is possible to define an acyclic structure to route packets between a group of Autonomous Systems. The adoption of complete orders also allows easy identification and avoidance of persistent route oscillations, eliminates the possibility of developing transient loops in paths, and provides a structure that facilitates the implementation of…
Adversaries can exploit inter-domain routing vulnerabilities to intercept communication and compromise the security of critical Internet applications. Meanwhile the deployment of secure routing solutions such as Border Gateway Protocol Security (BGPsec) and Scalability, Control and Isolation On Next-generation networks (SCION) are still limited. How can we leverage emerging secure routing backbones and extend their security properties to the broader Internet? We design and deploy an architecture to bootstrap secure routing. Our key insight is to abstract the secure routing backbone as a virtua…
Many works have studied the Internet topology, but few have investigated the question of how it evolves over time. This paper focuses on the Internet routing IP-level topology and proposes a first step towards realistic modeling of its dynamics. We study periodic measurements of routing trees from a single monitor to a fixed destination set and identify invariant properties of its dynamics. We then propose a simple model for the underlying mechanisms of the topology dynamics. Simulations show that it effectively captures the observed behaviors, thus providing key insights of relevant mechanism…
This article first addresses applicability of Euclidean models to the domain of Internet routing. Those models are found (limitedly) applicable. Then a simplistic model of routing is constructed for Euclidean plane densely covered with points-routers. The model guarantees low stretch and logarithmical size of routing tables at any node. The paper concludes with a discussion on applicability of the model to real-world Internet routing.
The current Internet is based on a fundamental assumption of reliability and good intent among actors in the network. Unfortunately, unreliable and malicious behaviour is becoming a major obstacle for Internet communication. In order to improve the trustworthiness and reliability of the network infrastructure, we propose a novel trust model to be incorporated into BGP routing. In our approach, trust model is defined by combining voting and recommendation to direct trust estimation for neighbour routers located in different autonomous systems. We illustrate the impact of our approach with cases…
In this paper, we study the downward routing for network control/actuation in large-scale and heterogeneous wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and Internet of Things (IoT). We propose the Opportunistic Source Routing (OSR), a scalable and reliable downward routing protocol for WSNs/IoT. OSR introduces opportunistic routing into traditional source routing based on the parent set of a node's upward routing in data collection, significantly addressing the drastic link dynamics in low-power and lossy WSNs. We devise a novel adaptive Bloom filter mechanism to effectively and efficiently encode a downw…
BGP-Multipath (BGP-M) is a multipath routing technique for load balancing. Distinct from other techniques deployed at a router inside an Autonomous System (AS), BGP-M is deployed at a border router that has installed multiple inter-domain border links to a neighbour AS. It uses the equal-cost multi-path (ECMP) function of a border router to share traffic to a destination prefix on different border links. Despite recent research interests in multipath routing, there is little study on BGP-M. Here we provide the first measurement and a comprehensive analysis of BGP-M routing in the Internet. We …
Latency is one of the most critical performance metrics for a wide range of applications. Therefore, it is important to understand the underlying mechanisms that give rise to the observed latency values and diagnose the ones that are unexpectedly high. In this paper, we study the Internet delay space via robust principal component analysis (RPCA). Using RPCA, we show that the delay space, i.e. the matrix of measured round trip times between end hosts, can be decomposed into two components - the expected latency between end hosts with respect to the current state of the Internet and the inflati…
Geocast is the concept of sending data packets to nodes in a specified geographical area instead of nodes with a specific address. To route geocast messages to their destination we need a geographic routing algorithm that can route packets efficiently to the devices inside the destination area. Our goal is to design an algorithm that can deliver shortest path tree like forwarding while relying purely on distributed data without central knowledge. In this paper, we present two algorithms for geographic routing. One based purely on distance vector data, and one more complicated algorithm based o…
The Internet is composed of networks, called Autonomous Systems (or, ASes), interconnected to each other, thus forming a large graph. While both the AS-graph is known and there is a multitude of data available for the ASes (i.e., node attributes), the research on applying graph machine learning (ML) methods on Internet data has not attracted a lot of attention. In this work, we provide a benchmarking framework aiming to facilitate research on Internet data using graph-ML and graph neural network (GNN) methods. Specifically, we compile a dataset with heterogeneous node/AS attributes by collecti…
The Physical Internet (PI) raises high expectations for efficiency gains in transport and logistics. The PI represents the network of logistics networks for physical objects in analogy to the Data Internet (DI). Road based traffic represents one of these logistics networks. Here, many empty runs and underutilized trips still take place. Hence, there is a lot of potential in the road-based Physical Internet (RBPI), which will have an impact on transport and logistics strategies, but also on vehicle design. On the DI, logistics strategies are implemented in protocols. In order to transfer such c…
Attacks on Internet routing are typically viewed through the lens of availability and confidentiality, assuming an adversary that either discards traffic or performs eavesdropping. Yet, a strategic adversary can use routing attacks to compromise the security of critical Internet applications like Tor, certificate authorities, and the bitcoin network. In this paper, we survey such application-specific routing attacks and argue that both application-layer and network-layer defenses are essential and urgently needed. While application-layer defenses are easier to deploy in the short term, we hope…
We introduce CCN-RAMP (Routing to Anchors Matching Prefixes), a new approach to content-centric networking. CCN-RAMP offers all the advantages of the Named Data Networking (NDN) and Content-Centric Networking (CCNx) but eliminates the need to either use Pending Interest Tables (PIT) or lookup large Forwarding Information Bases (FIB) listing name prefixes in order to forward Interests. CCN-RAMP uses small forwarding tables listing anonymous sources of Interests and the locations of name prefixes. Such tables are immune to Interest-flooding attacks and are smaller than the FIBs used to list IP a…
The Internet provides physical path diversity between a large number of hosts, making it possible for networks to use alternative paths when one path fails to deliver the required Quality of Service. However, for various reasons, many established protocols (e.g. de facto Internet inter-domain routing protocol, Border-Gateway Protocol - BGP) do not fully exploit such alternate paths. This paper surveys research into techniques for discovering end-to-end alternate paths, including those based on monitoring path performance, choosing paths that are maximally disjoint, and in routing across multip…
The Internet is composed of Autonomous Systems (ASes) or domains, i.e., networks belonging to different administrative entities. Routing between domains/ASes is realised in a distributed way, over the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Despite its global adoption, BGP has several shortcomings, like slow convergence after routing changes, which can cause packet losses and interrupt communication even for several minutes. To accelerate convergence, inter-domain routing centralization approaches, based on Software Defined Networking (SDN), have been recently proposed. Initial studies show that these …
BGP is the de-facto Internet routing protocol for exchanging prefix reachability information between Autonomous Systems (AS). It is a dynamic, distributed, path-vector protocol that enables rich expressions of network policies (typically treated as secrets). In this regime, where complexity is interwoven with information hiding, answering questions such as "what is the expected catchment of the anycast sites of a content provider on the AS-level, if new sites are deployed?", or "how will load-balancing behave if an ISP changes its routing policy for a prefix?", is a hard challenge. In this wor…
Routers are one of the important entities in computer networks specially the Internet. Forwarding IP packets is a valuable and vital function in Internet routers. Routers extract destination IP address from packets and lookup those addresses in their own routing table. This task is called IP lookup. Internet address lookup is a challenging problem due to the increasing routing table sizes. Ternary Content-Addressable Memories (TCAMs) are becoming very popular for designing high-throughput address lookup-engines on routers: they are fast, cost-effective and simple to manage. Despite the TCAMs s…
In many application areas such as large-scale disaster detection, IoT networks connote the characteristics of LLN (Low power and Lossy Network). With few exceptions, prior work on RPL(Routing Protocol for LLN), a standard routing protocol standardized in the IETF, has focused on the evaluation of various aspects of routing performances and control overheads. In this paper, we address the problem of DODAG (Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph) created by the direct application of RPL. We first evaluate the skewness of DODAG both via numerical simulations and via actual large-scale testbe…
The Internet's importance for promoting free and open communication has led to widespread crackdowns on its use in countries around the world. In this study, we investigate the relationship between national policies around freedom of speech and Internet topology in countries around the world. We combine techniques from network measurement and machine learning to identify features of Internet structure at the national level that are the best indicators of a country's level of freedom. We find that IP density and path lengths to other countries are the best indicators of a country's freedom. We …
Data transfer is one of the main functions of the Internet. The Internet consists of a large number of interconnected subnetworks or domains, known as Autonomous Systems. Due to privacy and other reasons the information about what route to use to reach devices within other Autonomous Systems is not readily available to any given Autonomous System. The Border Gateway Protocol is responsible for discovering and distributing this reachability information to all Autonomous Systems. Since the topology of the Internet is highly dynamic, all Autonomous Systems constantly exchange and update this reac…
A lot of applications depend on reliable and stable Internet connectivity. These characteristics are crucial for mission-critical services such as telemedical applications. An important factor that can affect connection availability is the convergence time of BGP, the de-facto inter-domain routing (IDR) protocol in the Internet. After a routing change, it may take several minutes until the network converges and BGP routing becomes stable again. Kotronis et al propose a novel Internet routing approach based on SDN principles that combines several Autonomous Systems (AS) into groups, called clus…
Now a days, Internet plays a major role in our day to day activities e.g., for online transactions, online shopping, and other network related applications. Internet suffers from slow convergence of routing protocols after a network failure which becomes a growing problem. Multiple Routing Configurations [MRC] recovers network from single node/link failures, but does not support network from multiple node/link failures. In this paper, we propose Enhanced MRC [EMRC], to support multiple node/link failures during data transmission in IP networks without frequent global re-convergence. By recover…
Though appropriate for core Internet infrastructure, the Internet Protocol is unsuited to routing within and between emerging ad-hoc edge networks due to its dependence on hierarchical, administratively assigned addresses. Existing ad-hoc routing protocols address the management problem but do not scale to Internet-wide networks. The promise of ubiquitous network computing cannot be fulfilled until we develop an Unmanaged Internet Protocol (UIP), a scalable routing protocol that manages itself automatically. UIP must route within and between constantly changing edge networks potentially contai…
Named Data Networks provide a clean-slate redesign of the Future Internet for efficient content distribution. Because Internet of Things are expected to compose a significant part of Future Internet, most content will be managed by constrained devices. Such devices are often equipped with limited CPU, memory, bandwidth, and energy supply. However, the current Named Data Networks design neglects the specific requirements of Internet of Things scenarios and many data structures need to be further optimised. The purpose of this research is to provide an efficient strategy to route in Named Data N…
BGP is the de facto protocol used for inter-autonomous system routing in the Internet. Generally speaking, BGP has been proven to be secure, efficient, scalable, and robust. However, with the rapid evolving of the Internet in the past few decades, there are increasing concerns about BGS's ability to meet the needs of the Internet routing. There are two major limitations of BGP which are its failure to address several key security issues, and some operational related problems. The design and ubiquity of BGP have complicated past efforts at securing inter-domain routing. This paper surveys the p…
We study the traffic dynamics in complex networks where each link is assigned a limited and identical bandwidth. Although the first-in-first-out (FIFO) queuing rule is widely applied in the routing protocol of information packets, here we argue that if we drop this rule, the overall throughput of the network can be remarkably enhanced. We proposed some efficient routing strategies that do not strictly obey the FIFO rule. Comparing with the routine shortest path strategy, the throughput for both Barabási-Albert (BA) networks and the real Internet, the throughput can be improved more than five t…
We propose to raise network domain to the first-class citizen in packet routing and forwarding. By making domain explicit in packet header, it can be held responsible for committed services and quality of service. Since the service is easier to be monitored, verified, and compensated, a new business model catering for emerging cross-domain, high-value, and performance-sensitive applications can be fostered. The domain-level routing and forwarding essentially create a L3.5 in the network protocol stack. We extend IPv6 with new routing headers to support two types of forwarding approaches. One i…
The Thorup-Zwick (TZ) routing scheme is the first generic stretch-3 routing scheme delivering a nearly optimal local memory upper bound. Using both direct analysis and simulation, we calculate the stretch distribution of this routing scheme on random graphs with power-law node degree distributions, $P_k \sim k^{-γ}$. We find that the average stretch is very low and virtually independent of $γ$. In particular, for the Internet interdomain graph, $γ\sim 2.1$, the average stretch is around 1.1, with up to 70% of paths being shortest. As the network grows, the average stretch slowly decreases. The…
Internet of underwater things (IoUT) is a technological revolution that could mark a new era for scientific, industrial, and military underwater applications. To mitigate the hostile underwater channel characteristics, this paper hybridizes underwater acoustic and optical wireless communications to achieve a ubiquitous control and high-speed low-latency networking performance, respectively. Since underwater optical wireless communications (UOWC) suffers from limited range, it requires effective multi-hop routing solutions. In this regard, we propose a Sector-based Opportunistic Routing (SectOR…
With the continuous emergence of new mobile devices which support new communication paradigms such as D2D and V2V, Internet users can take advantage of these devices to achieve better Internet connectivity and improve service quality. Meanwhile, packet forwarding brings extra costs to devices (e.g. electricity consumption), that hinders the realisation of successful ad-hoc networks. This paper proposes Reactive Routing and Payment Protocol (R2P2) to incentivise mobile devices to contribute idle networking resources and gain monetary returns. The routing and payment protocol is developed for Na…
In this paper, we propose RECOUP, a reliable group communication routing protocol for IoT networks. RECOUP efficiently uses a low-overhead cluster-based multicast routing technique on top of the RPL protocol. RECOUP increases the probability of message delivery to the intended destination(s), irrespective of the network size and faults (such as broken links or non-responsive nodes), and in the presence of misbehaving nodes.We show that the cluster-based routing mechanism of RECOUP remains robust in presence of various topology (i.e., rank and sybil) and data communication (i.e., blackhole, wor…
The Autonomous System (AS)-level topology of the Internet that currently comprises 40k ASs, is growing at a rate of about 10% per year. In these conditions, Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), the inter-domain routing protocol of the Internet starts to show its limits, among others in terms of the number of routing table entries it can dynamically process and control. To overcome this challenging situation, the design but also the evaluation of alternative dynamic routing models and their comparison with BGP shall be performed by means of simulation. For this purpose, DRMSim, a Dynamic Routing Mode…
The goal of Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) is to serve content to end-users with high performance. In order to do that, a CDN measures the latency on the paths from its servers to users and then selects a best available server for each user. For large CDNs, monitoring paths from thousands of servers to millions of users is a challenging task due to its size. In this paper, we address this problem and propose a framework to scale the task of path monitoring. Simply stated, the goal of our framework is clustering IP addresses (clients) such that in each cluster the choice of best available ser…
The original design of the Internet was a resilient, distributed system, that maybe able to route around (and therefore recover from) massive disruption --- up to and including nuclear war. However, network routing effects and business decisions cause traffic to often be routed through a relatively small set of Autonomous Systems (ASes). This is not merely an academic issue; it has practical implications --- some of these frequently appearing ASes are hosted in censorious nations. Other than censoring their own citizens' network access, such ASes may inadvertently filter traffic for other fore…
The Internet infrastructure is severely stressed. Rapidly growing overheads associated with the primary function of the Internet---routing information packets between any two computers in the world---cause concerns among Internet experts that the existing Internet routing architecture may not sustain even another decade. Here we present a method to map the Internet to a hyperbolic space. Guided with the constructed map, which we release with this paper, Internet routing exhibits scaling properties close to theoretically best possible, thus resolving serious scaling limitations that the Interne…
Internet of Things (IoT) are increasingly being adopted into practical applications such as security systems, smart infrastructure, traffic management, weather systems, among others. While the scale of these applications is enormous, device capabilities, particularly in terms of battery life and energy efficiency are limited. Despite research being done to ameliorate these shortcomings, wireless IoT networks still cannot guarantee satisfactory network lifetimes and prolonged sensing coverage. Moreover, proposed schemes in literature are convoluted and cannot be easily implemented in real-world…
