Diversity-based security approaches have been studied for several decades since the 1970's. The concept of diversity-by-design emerged in the 1980's and, since then, diversity-based system design research has been explored to build more secure and dependable systems. In this work, we are particularly interested in providing an in-depth, comprehensive survey of existing diversity-based approaches, insights, and future work directions for those who want to conduct research on developing secure and dependable cyber-physical systems (CPSs) using diversity as a system design feature. To be specific, this survey paper provides: (i) The common concept of diversity based on a multidisciplinary study of diversity from nine different fields along with the historical evolution of diversity-by-design for security; (ii) The design principles of diversity-based approaches; (iii) The key benefits and caveats of using diversity-by-design; (iv) The key concerns of CPS environments in introducing diversity-by-design; (v) A variety of existing diversity-based approaches based on five different classifications; (vi) The types of attacks mitigated by existing diversity-based approaches; (vii) The overall trends of evaluation methodologies used in diversity-based approaches, in terms of metrics, datasets, and testbeds; and (viii) The insights, lessons, and gaps identified from this extensive survey.
Safety risk assessment is an essential process to ensure a dependable Cyber-Physical System (CPS) design. Traditional risk assessment considers only physical failures. For modern CPS, failures caused by cyber attacks are on the rise. The focus of latest research effort is on safety-security lifecycle integration and the expansion of modeling formalisms for risk assessment to incorporate security failures. The interaction between safety and security lifecycles and its impact on the overall system design, as well as the reliability loss resulting from ignoring security failures are some of the o…
In recent years, researchers have proposed \emph{cyber-insurance} as a suitable risk-management technique for enhancing security in Internet-like distributed systems. However, amongst other factors, information asymmetry between the insurer and the insured, and the inter-dependent and correlated nature of cyber risks have contributed in a big way to the failure of cyber-insurance markets. Security experts have argued in favor of operating system (OS) platform switching (ex., from Windows to Unix-based OSs) or secure OS adoption as being one of the techniques that can potentially mitigate the p…
Cyber physical systems (CPS) are mission critical systems engineered by combination of cyber and physical systems respectively. These systems are tightly coupled, resource constrained systems and have dynamic real time applications. Due to the limitation of resources, and in order to improve the efficiency of the CPS systems, they are combined with cloud computing architecture, and are called as Cyber Physical Cloud Computing Systems (CPCCS). These CPCCS have critical care applications where security of the systems is a major concern. Therefore, we propose a Secure Service provisioning archite…
Training the future cybersecurity workforce to respond to emerging threats requires introduction of novel educational interventions into the cybersecurity curriculum. To be effective, these interventions have to incorporate trending knowledge from cybersecurity and other related domains while allowing for experiential learning through hands-on experimentation. To date, the traditional interdisciplinary approach for cybersecurity training has infused political science, law, economics or linguistics knowledge into the cybersecurity curriculum, allowing for limited experimentation. Cybersecurity …
Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are being widely adopted in critical infrastructures, such as smart grids, nuclear plants, water systems, transportation systems, manufacturing and healthcare services, among others. However, the increasing prevalence of cyberattacks targeting them raises a growing security concern in the domain. In particular, memory-safety attacks, that exploit memory-safety vulnerabilities, constitute a major attack vector against real-time control devices in CPS. Traditional IT countermeasures against such attacks have limitations when applied to the CPS context: they typically…
This paper surveys the latest on Smart Grid security. It focuses on the deep understanding of the risk in terms of threats, vulnerabilities and consequences that arise from cyber-attacks.
Individual and Contextual Variables of Cyber Security Behaviour -- An empirical analysis of national culture, industry, organisation, and individual variables of (in)secure human behaviour
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University（伊玛目阿卜杜勒拉赫曼·本·费萨尔大学）；North Orissa University（北奥里萨大学）
Smart city improved the quality of life for the citizens by implementing information communication technology (ICT) such as the internet of things (IoT). Nevertheless, the smart city is a critical environment that needs to secure it is network and data from intrusions and attacks. This work proposes a hybrid deep learning (DL) model for cyber threat intelligence (CTI) to improve threats classification performance based on convolutional neural network (CNN) and quasi-recurrent neural network (QRNN). We use QRNN to provide a real-time threat classification model. The evaluation results of the pr…
Blockchain transactions are signed by private keys. Secure key storage and tamper-proof computers are essential requirements for deploying a trusted infrastructure. In this paper, we identify some threats against blockchain wallets and propose a set of physical and logical countermeasures to thwart them. We present the crypto terminal device, operating with a removable secure element, built on open software and hardware architectures, capable of detecting a cloned device or corrupted software. These technologies are based on tamper-resistant computing (javacard), smart card anti-cloning, smart…
The cloud model allows many enterprises able to outsource computing resources at an affordable price without having to commit the expense upfront. Although the cloud providers are responsible for the security of the cloud, there are still many security concerns due to inherently complex model the cloud providers operate on (e.g.,multi-tenancy). In addition, the enterprises whose services have migrated into the cloud have a preference for their own cybersecurity situation awareness capability on top of the security mechanisms provided by the cloud providers. In this way, the enterprises can mon…
Using Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (I2V) information can be of great benefit when driving autonomously in high-density traffic situations with limited visibility, since the sensing capabilities of the vehicle are enhanced by external sensors. In this research, a method is introduced to increase the vehicle's self-awareness in intersections for one of the largest foreseen challenges when using I2V communication: cyber security. The introduced anomaly detection algorithm, running on the automated vehicle, assesses the health of the I2V communication against multiple cyber security attacks. The anal…
Paper ballot voting with its fully-reviewable paper-trail is usually considered as more secure than their e-voting counterparts, given the large number of recent incidents. In this work, we explore the security of paper voting and show that paper voting, as it is implemented today, is surprisingly vulnerable to cyber-attacks. In particular, the aggregation methods of preliminary voting results of various countries rely on insecure communication channels like telephone, fax or non-secure e-mail. Furthermore, regulations typically do not mandate the use of secure channels for the transmission of…
A Formal Resilience Framework for Cyber-Physical Embodied Systems under Device-Level Cyberattacks
Department of Computer Science, Örebro University, Sweden（瑞典 Örebro 大学计算机科学系）；AI, Robotics and Cybersecurity Center (ARC), Örebro University, Sweden（瑞典 Örebro 大学人工智能、机器人与网络安全中心）
This paper proposes a novel secure live virtual machine migration framework by using a virtual trusted platform module instance to improve the integrity of the migration process from one virtual machine to another on the same platform. The proposed framework, called Kororā, is designed and developed on a public infrastructure-as-a-service cloud-computing environment and runs concurrently on the same hardware components (Input/Output, Central Processing Unit, Memory) and the same hypervisor (Xen); however, a combination of parameters needs to be evaluated before implementing Kororā. The impleme…
Cyber-physical systems (CPS) are composed of various embedded subsystems and require specialized software, firmware, and hardware to coordinate with the rest of the system. These multiple levels of integration expose attack surfaces which can be susceptible to attack vectors that require novel architectural methods to effectively secure against. We present a multilevel hierarchical monitor architecture cybersecurity approach applied to a flight control system. However, the principles present in this paper apply to any CPS. Additionally, the real-time nature of these monitors allow for adaptabl…
Recent cyber-attacks on power grids highlight the necessity to protect the critical functionalities of a control center vital for the safe operation of a grid. Even in a distributed framework one central control center acts as a coordinator in majority of the control center architectures. Such a control center can become a prime target for cyber as well as physical attacks, and, hence, a single point failure can lead to complete loss of visibility of the power grid. If the control center which runs the critical functions in a distributed computing environment can be randomly chosen between the…
COVID-19 has caused widespread damage across many areas of life and has made humans more dependent on the internet and technology making us realize the importance of secure remote working environments. While social separation is encouraged during moments of lockdown, online infrastructure has become the central focus for communication, commerce, working, and learning, creating a new challenge and trend for companies to adopt new methods and operating models. The cases of cyber-attacks increased, and fraudsters and cybercriminals took use of this to intensify their illegal activities by taking …
This paper discusses mixing of chaotic systems as a dependable method for secure communication. Distribution of the entropy function for steady state as well as plaintext input sequences are analyzed. It is shown that the mixing of chaotic sequences results in a sequence that does not have any state dependence on the information encrypted by them. The generated output states of such a cipher approach the theoretical maximum for both complexity measures and cycle length. These features are then compared with some popular ciphers.
RF-based wireless power transfer networks (WPTNs) are deployed to transfer power to embedded devices over the air via RF waves. Up until now, a considerable amount of effort has been devoted by researchers to design WPTNs that maximize several objectives such as harvested power, energy outage and charging delay. However, inherent security and safety issues are generally overlooked and these need to be solved if WPTNs are to be become widespread. This article focuses on safety and security problems related WPTNs and highlight their cruciality in terms of efficient and dependable operation of RF…
Correct-by-construction synthesis is a cornerstone of the confluence of formal methods and control theory towards designing safety-critical systems. Instead of following the time-tested, albeit laborious (re)design-verify-validate loop, correct-by-construction methodology advocates the use of continual refinements of formal requirements -- connected by chains of formal proofs -- to build a system that assures the correctness by design. A remarkable progress has been made in scaling the scope of applicability of correct-by-construction synthesis -- with a focus on cyber-physical systems that ti…
Teleoperated robots are playing an increasingly important role in military actions and medical services. In the future, remotely operated surgical robots will likely be used in more scenarios such as battlefields and emergency response. But rapidly growing applications of teleoperated surgery raise the question; what if the computer systems for these robots are attacked, taken over and even turned into weapons? Our work seeks to answer this question by systematically analyzing possible cyber security attacks against Raven II, an advanced teleoperated robotic surgery system. We identify a slew …
In times of Industry 4.0 and cyber-physical systems (CPS) providing security is one of the biggest challenges. A cyber attack launched at a CPS poses a huge threat, since a security incident may affect both the cyber and the physical world. Since CPS are very flexible systems, which are capable of adapting to environmental changes, it is important to keep an overview of the resulting costs of providing security. However, research regarding CPS currently focuses more on engineering secure systems and does not satisfactorily provide approaches for evaluating the resulting costs. This paper prese…
Cyber assurance, which is the ability to operate under the onslaught of cyber attacks and other unexpected events, is essential for organizations facing inundating security threats on a daily basis. Organizations usually employ multiple strategies to conduct risk management to achieve cyber assurance. Utilizing cybersecurity standards and certifications can provide guidance for vendors to design and manufacture secure Information and Communication Technology (ICT) products as well as provide a level of assurance of the security functionality of the products for consumers. Hence, employing secu…
Innovations in Cardless Artificial Intelligence Banking: A Comprehensive Framework for Cyber Secure and Fraud Mitigation using Machine Learning Algorithms
Computer Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
Most of the smart applications, such as smart energy metering devices, demand strong privacy preservation to strengthen data privacy. However, it is difficult to protect the privacy of the smart device data, especially on the client side. It is mainly because payment for billing is computed by the server deployed at the client's side, and it is highly challenging to prevent the leakage of client's information to unauthorised users. Various researchers have discussed this problem and have proposed different privacy preservation techniques. Conventional techniques suffer from the problem of high…
While the increasing penetration of information and communication technology into distribution grid brings numerous benefits, it also opens up a new threat landscape, particularly through cyberattacks. To provide a basis for countermeasures against such threats, this paper addresses the investigation of the impact and manifestations of cyberattacks on smart grids by replicating the power grid in a secure, isolated, and controlled laboratory environment as a cyber-physical twin. Currently, detecting intrusions by unauthorized third parties into the central monitoring and control system of grid …
While connected vehicle (CV) applications have the potential to revolutionize traditional transportation system, cyber and physical attacks on them could be devastating. In this work, we propose an efficient dual cyber-physical blockchain framework to build trust and secure communication for CV applications. Our approach incorporates blockchain technology and physical sensing capabilities of vehicles to quickly react to attacks in a large-scale vehicular network, with low resource overhead. We explore the application of our framework to three CV applications, i.e., highway merging, intelligent…
As an important cyber-physical system (CPS), smart grid is highly vulnerable to cyber attacks. Amongst various types of attacks, false data injection attack (FDIA) proves to be one of the top-priority cyber-related issues and has received increasing attention in recent years. However, so far little attention has been paid to privacy preservation issues in the detection of FDIAs in smart grid. Inspired by federated learning, a FDIA detection method based on secure federated deep learning is proposed in this paper by combining Transformer, federated learning and Paillier cryptosystem. The Transf…
In recent years Industrial Control Systems (ICS) have been targeted increasingly by sophisticated cyberattacks. Improving ICS security has drawn significant attention in the literature that emphasises the importance of Cyber Threat Intelligence (CTI) sharing in accelerating detection, mitigation, and prevention of cyberattacks. However, organisations are reluctant to exchange CTI due to fear of exposure, reputational damage, and lack of incentives. Furthermore, there has been limited discussion about the factors influencing participation in sharing CTI about ICS. The existing CTI-sharing platf…
We introduce a model for a market based economic system of cyber-risk valuation to correct fundamental problems of incentives within the information technology and information processing industries. We assess the makeup of the current day marketplace, identify incentives, identify economic reasons for current failings, and explain how a market based risk valuation system could improve these incentives to form a secure and robust information marketplace for all consumers by providing visibility into open, consensus based risk pricing and allowing all parties to make well informed decisions.
Critical Infrastructures (CIs) such as power grid, water and gas distribution are controlled by Industrial Control Systems (ICS). Sensors and actuators of a physical plant are managed by the ICS. Data and commands transmitted over the network from the Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are saved and parsed within the Historian. Generally, this architecture guarantees to check for any process anomalies that may occur due to component failures and cyber attacks. The other use of this data allows activities such as forensic analysis. To secure the network is also crucial to protect the communi…
In Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), inference based on communicated data is of critical significance as it can be used to manipulate or damage the control operations by adversaries. This calls for efficient mechanisms for secure transmission of data since control systems are becoming increasingly distributed over larger geographical areas. Distortion based security, recently proposed as one candidate for secure transmissions in CPS, is not only more appropriate for these applications but also quite frugal in terms of prior requirements on shared keys. In this paper, we propose distortion-based me…
