We study the evolution of chromospheric line and continuum emission during the impulsive phase of the X-class SOL2014-09-10T17:45 solar flare. We extend previous analyses of this flare to multiple chromospheric lines of Fe I, Fe II, Mg II, C I, and Si II, observed with IRIS, combined with radiative-hydrodynamical (RHD) modeling. For multiple flaring kernels, the lines all show a rapidly evolving double-component structure: an enhanced, emission component at rest, and a broad, highly red-shifted component of comparable intensity. The red-shifted components migrate from 25-50 km s$^{-1}$ towards the rest wavelength within $\sim$30 seconds.
Using Fermi hard X-ray observations, we derive the parameters of an accelerated electron beam impacting the dense chromosphere, using them to drive a RHD simulation with the RADYN code. As in Kowalski et al. 2017a, our simulations show that the most energetic electrons penetrate into the deep chromosphere, heating it to T$\sim$10,000 K, while the bulk of the electrons dissipate their energy higher, driving an explosive evaporation, and its counterpart condensation -- a very dense (n$_e \sim 2 \times 10^{14}$ cm$^{-3}$), thin layer (30--40 km thickness), heated to 8--12,000 K, moving towards the stationary chromosphere at up to 50 km s$^{-1}$.
The synthetic Fe II 2814.45A profiles closely resemble the observational data, including a continuum enhancement, and both a stationary and a highly red-shifted component, rapidly moving towards the rest wavelength. Importantly, the absolute continuum intensity, ratio of component intensities, relative time of appearance, and red-shift amplitude, are sensitive to the model input parameters, showing great potential as diagnostics.
We present different signatures of chromospheric evaporation in two solar flares observed by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS). In the B1.6 flare on 2016 December 6 (SOL2016-12-06T10:40), the transition region Si IV line and the chromospheric C II and Mg II lines show blueshifts with low velocities up to 20 km/s at the flare loop footpoints in the rise phase, indicative of a gentle chromospheric evaporation. While in the C1.6 flare on 2015 December 19 (SOL2015-12-19T10:51), the Si IV, C II, and Mg II lines exhibit redshifts with velocities from several to tens of km/s at the foo…
Radiative losses in the chromosphere are very important in the energy balance. There have been efforts to make simple lookup tables for chromospheric radiative losses in the quiet Sun. During solar flares, the atmospheric conditions are quite different, and the currently available recipe of Gan & Fang (1990) is constructed from semi-empirical models. It remains to be evaluated how these recipes work in flare conditions. We aim to construct an approximate recipe of chromospheric radiative losses for solar flares. We follow the method of Carlsson & Leenaarts (2012) to tabulate the optically thin…
We analyze a grid of radiative hydrodynamic simulations of solar flares to study the energy balance and response of the atmosphere to nonthermal electron beam heating. The appearance of chromospheric bubbles is one of the most notable features that we find in the simulations. These pockets of chromospheric plasma get trapped between the transition region and the lower atmosphere as it is superheated by the particle beam. The chromospheric bubbles are seen in the synthetic spectra, appearing as an additional component to Balmer line profiles with high Doppler velocities as high as 200 km/s. The…
Context. Radiative losses are an indispensable part in the numerical simulation of flares. Detailed calculations could be computationally expensive, especially in the chromosphere. There have been some approximate recipes for chromospheric radiative losses in flares, yet their feasibility in flare simulations needs further evaluation. Aims. We aim to evaluate the performance of different recipes for chromospheric radiative losses in flare simulations. Methods. We compare the atmospheric structure and line profiles in beam-heated flares calculated with detailed radiative losses and the approxim…
Explosive chromospheric evaporation driven by nonthermal electrons around one footpoint of a solar flare loop
我们探索了2014年10月27日（SOL 2014 -10-27）太阳耀斑脉冲阶段期间微波/HXR发射和多普勒速度之间的时间关系，在耀斑最大值之前，在微波（34 GHz）和硬X射线（HXR，25-50 keV）波段的光变曲线上显示脉冲。成像观测表明，该脉冲主要来自一个太阳耀斑环的一个足点。在这次太阳耀斑期间，界面区成像光谱仪（IRIS）的狭缝就停留在这个足点上。用高斯拟合方法提取了Fe XXI 1354.09 A和Si IV 1402.77 A的多普勒速度。结果表明，Fe XXI 1354.09 A（logT~7.05）在日冕中的热谱线发生了蓝移，而Si IV 1402.77 A（logT~4.8）在过渡区中的冷谱线发生了红移，表明色球发生了爆炸性蒸发。在AIA 131 A图像中还观察到沿火炬环的蒸发上升流。据我们所知，这是第一次报告色球蒸发的证据，从光谱和成像观测在同一耀斑。微波和HXR脉冲都与多普勒速度有很好的相关性，这表明色球蒸发是由太阳耀斑环的这个脚点周围的非热电子驱动的。
Observations of solar flare reconnection at very high spatial and temporal resolution can be made indirectly at the footpoints of reconnected loops into which flare energy is deposited. The response of the lower atmosphere to this energy input includes a downward-propagating shock called chromospheric condensation, which can be observed in the UV and visible. In order to characterize reconnection using high-resolution observations of this response, one must develop a quantitative relationship between the two. Such a relation was recently developed and here we test it on observations of chromos…
We explored simultaneous observations of chromospheric evaporation and condensation during the impulsive phase of a C6.7 flare on 9 May 2019. The solar flare was simultaneously observed by multiple instruments, i.e., the New Vacuum Solar Telescope (NVST), the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA), the Fermi, the Mingantu Spectral Radioheliograph, and the Nobeyama Radio Polarimeters. Using the single Gaussian fitting and the moment analysis technique, redshifted velocities at slow speeds of 15-19 km/s are found in the cool lines of C II and Si IV at one f…
Spectroscopic Observations of Magnetic Reconnection and Chromospheric Evaporation in an X-shaped Solar Flare
我们提出了在一个非典型的X形耀斑（SOL 2014 -11- 09 T15：32）期间，由界面区域成像光谱仪（IRIS）观测到的不同位置的不同紫外光谱特性的观测结果。在这个耀斑中，出现了四条色球带，并会聚在一个X点，那里有一个分离器被锚定。在X点上方，两组非共面冠状环横向接近并在分离器处重新连接。IRIS狭缝位于X点附近，穿过一些扩口带和环。在分离器附近，Si IV 1402.77 A线表现出明显加宽的线翼，延伸到200 km/s，但线芯没有移动。这些光谱特征表明可能与分离器重连有关的双向流动的存在。而在耀斑带中，热的Fe XXI 1354.08 A谱线出现蓝移，冷的Si IV 1402.77 A，C II 1335.71 A和Mg II 2803.52 A谱线出现明显的红移，红移速度可达80 km/s，这与色球蒸发/凝结的情况相一致。
Context. Magnetic reconnection during flares takes place in the corona but a substantial part of flare energy is deposited in the chromosphere. However, high-resolution spectro-polarimetric chromospheric observations of flares are very rare. The most used observables are Ca II 8542 Å and He I 10830 Å. Aims. We aim to study the chromosphere during a C3.6 class flare via spectro-polarimetric observations of the He I D3 line. Methods. We present the first SST/CRISP spectro-polarimetric observations of He I D3. We analyze the data using the inversion code HAZEL, and estimate the LOS velocity and t…
We present the first observation of a solar filament formed by magnetic reconnection and associated chromospheric evaporation and subsequent coronal condensation. Driven by shearing motion during flux emergence, a sequential tether-cutting reconnection processes occurred and resulted in an M1.3 confined flare accompany with the formation of a sigmoid structure. It is found that the flare had a conjugate compact footpoint brightenings, which correspond to the footpoints of the sigmoid. Furthermore, observational evidence of explosive evaporation is well diagnosed at the conjugate footpoint brig…
We present temporal variations of the Si IV line profiles at the flare ribbons in three solar flares observed by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS). In the M1.1 flare on 2014 September 6 and the X1.6 flare on 2014 September 10, the Si IV line profiles evolve from wholly redshifted to red-wing enhanced with the flare development. However, in the B1.8 flare on 2016 December 2, the Si IV line profiles are wholly redshifted throughout the flare evolution. We fit the wholly redshifted line profiles with a single Gaussian function but the red-asymmetric ones with a double Gaussian func…
Active region NOAA 12673 was extremely volatile in 2017 September, producing many solar flares, including the largest of solar cycle 24, an X9.3 flare of 06 September 2017. It has been reported that this flare produced a number of sunquakes along the flare ribbon (Sharykin & Kosovichev 2018; Zhao & Chen 2018). We have used co-temporal and co-spatial Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) line-of-sight (LOS) and Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope observations to show evidence of the chromospheric response to these sunquakes. Analysis of the Ca II 8542 Å\space line profiles of the wavefronts revealed t…
Properties of chromospheric evaporation and plasma dynamics of a solar flare from IRIS observations
太阳耀斑色球热等离子体动力学是理解耀斑能量释放和粒子加速机制的关键。2014年6月12日的中等M1.0级耀斑（SOL 2014 -06- 12 T21：12）同时被NASA的界面区域成像光谱仪（IRIS），其他航天器和BBSO的新太阳望远镜（NST）观测到。本文介绍了我们的调查的第一部分集中在IRIS数据的分析。对IRIS不同谱线的观测资料进行分析，发现耀斑前色球物质中存在一个速度约为100 km/s的强红移喷流。强的非热发射的C II k 1334.5 A线，形成于色球-日冕过渡区，在脉冲阶段的开始时，在几个小的（与~1 arcsec的大小）点观察。还发现C Ⅱ k线在脉冲相之前、期间和之后都发生了跨越耀斑区的红移。Fe XXI 1354.1 A谱线中的热（1.1 MK）等离子体的积分发射峰在较低温度C II k的积分发射峰之后约5分钟被检测到。一个强大的蓝移的Fe XXI线在整个耀斑区域对应的热色球等离子体的蒸发流的速度为50公里/秒。对拉马迪高能太阳光谱成像仪（RHESSI）数据的进一步分析支持这样一种观点，即IRIS观测到的上色球层动态具有“温和”蒸发的特征，这是由加速电子和耀斑能量释放点的热通量加热太阳色球层驱动的。
How important are electron beams in driving chromospheric evaporation in the 2014 March 29 flare?
我们提出了耀斑SOL 2014 -03- 29 T17：48色球蒸发的高空间分辨率观测。FeXXI 1354.1 A线的界面区域成像光谱仪（IRIS）观测表明，在耀斑峰值期间和进入衰变阶段的几分钟内，沿耀斑带在10 MK的温度下蒸发等离子体，上升流速度在30 km s $^{-1}$和200 km s $^{-1}$之间。在耀斑峰值期间，通过RHESSI观察硬X射线（HXR）足点两分钟。它们的位置与南部耀斑带部分上升气流的位置相吻合，但HXR足点源比FeXXI的上升气流早30-75秒。然而，在南部带状的其他部分和北部带状的观察到的上升流不符合HXR源的时间和空间，最突出的是在衰变阶段。在这种情况下，蒸发很可能是由能量输入引起的，通过在整个观测时间间隔内存在的热（25 MK）日冕源和色球层之间建立的传导通量。所提出的意见表明，传导可能会驱动蒸发不仅在衰变阶段，但也在耀斑峰值。电子束加热可能只在耀斑的初始阶段起驱动蒸发的作用。
Numerical models of solar flares typically focus on the behaviour of directly-heated flare models, adopting magnetic field- aligned, plane-parallel methodologies. With high spatial- and spectral-resolution ground-based optical observations of flares, it is essential also to understand the response of the plasma surrounding these strongly heated volumes. We investigate the effects of the extreme radiation field produced by a heated column of flare plasma on an adjacent slab of chromospheric plasma, using a two-dimensional radiative transfer model and considering the time-dependent solution to t…
In this paper, we report our multiwavelength imaging observations of chromospheric evaporation in a C5.5 circular-ribbon flare (CRF) on 2014 August 24. The flare was observed by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on board the \textit{Solar Dynamics Observatory} (\textit{SDO}), X-ray Telescope (XRT) on board the \textit{Hinode} spacecraft, and ground-based Nobeyama Radioheliograph (NoRH). The CRF consisted of a discrete circular ribbon with a diameter of $\sim$1$\arcmin$ and a short inner ribbon observed in ultraviolet (UV), extreme-ultraviolet (EUV), soft X-ray (SXR), and especially in 17 …
Red-shifted components of chromospheric emission lines in the hard X-ray impulsive phase of solar flares have recently been studied through their 30 s evolution with the high resolution of IRIS. Radiative-hydrodynamic flare models show that these redshifts are generally reproduced by electron-beam generated chromospheric condensations. The models produce large ambient electron densities, and the pressure broadening of hydrogen Balmer series should be readily detected in observations. To accurately interpret upcoming spectral data of flares with the DKIST, we incorporate non-ideal, non-adiabati…
Oscillations in the solar atmosphere have long been observed in quiet conditions, and increasingly also in data taken during solar flares. The chromosphere is known for its 3-minute signals, which are particularly strong over sunspot umbrae. These signals are thought to be driven by photospheric disturbances and their periods determined by the chromosphere's acoustic cut-off frequency. A small number of observations have shown the chromospheric 3-minute signals to be affected by energetic events such as solar flares, however the link between flare activity and these oscillatory signals remains…
We present a statistical study of chromospheric evaporation in solar flares using simultaneous observations by the RHESSI X-ray telescope and the IRIS UV spectrograph. The results are compared with radiation hydrodynamic flare models from the F-CHROMA RADYN database. For each event, we study spatially-resolved Doppler shifts of spectral lines formed in the transition region (C\,II\,1334.5\,Å) and hot coronal plasma (Fe\,XXI\,1354.1\,Å) to investigate the dynamics of the solar atmosphere during the flare impulsive phase. We estimate the energy fluxes deposited by high-energy electrons using X-r…
High Resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Chromospheric Line Evolution during an Energetic Flare on AD Leo
Seoul National University（首尔大学）；SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University（首尔大学天体物理与天文系天文研究中心）；Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute（韩国天文与空间科学研究院）；University of Science and Technology（科学技术大学）
利用高分辨率光谱分析AD Leo超耀斑的色球谱线演化，发现Hα辐射能量8.8×10^30 erg，总能量约10^33 erg，Ca II H&K和红外三重线延迟发射符合Neupert效应，表明累积加热主导缓变相。
We studied an X1.6 solar flare produced by NOAA AR 12602 on 2014 October 22. The entirety of this event was covered by RHESSI, IRIS, and Hinode/EIS, allowing analysis of the chromospheric response to a nonthermal electron driver. We derived the energy contained in nonthermal electrons via RHESSI spectral fitting, and linked the time-dependent parameters of this call to the response in Doppler velocity, density, and nonthermal width across a broad temperature range. The total energy injected was $4.8\times10^{30}$ erg, and lasted $352$ seconds. This energy drove explosive chromospheric evaporat…
Halpha line profile asymmetries and the chromospheric flare velocity field
在太阳耀斑谱线轮廓中观察到的不对称性可以为耀斑大气的性质和动力学提供重要的诊断。本文利用瑞典1米太阳望远镜对M1.1耀斑的高空间、时间和光谱分辨率地面观测资料研究了Halalpha和Ca II 8542耀斑谱线的演化。从耀斑内核的H α线轮廓的时间演变显示过量的排放在红翼（红色不对称）耀斑最大之前，和过量的蓝翼（蓝色不对称）最大之后。然而，Ca II 8542的红外线并不遵循相同的模式，在耀斑期间只显示出微弱的红色不对称性。用RADYN模拟方法合成了耀斑大气的谱线廓线，与观测结果符合较好。我们发现，在Halpha中观察到的红色不对称性不一定与等离子体向下流动，蓝色不对称性可能与等离子体向上流动无关。事实上，我们的结论是，陡峭的速度梯度在耀斑色球修改的波长的中心反转的H α线的配置文件。最大不透明度的波长向较短和较长波长的偏移分别产生红色和蓝色不对称性。
Plasmoid-Trapped Condensation Associated with a Transient Thermal-Instability-Like Process in Chromospheric Magnetic Reconnection
Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Science（中国科学院云南天文台）；Yunnan Key Laboratory of Solar Physics and Space Science（云南省太阳物理与空间科学重点实验室）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院大学）；Dr. K. S. Krishnan Geomagnetic Research Laboratory, Indian Institute of Geomagnetism（印度地球磁学研究所K.S.克里希南地磁研究实验室）；School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University（北京大学地球与空间科学学院）；State Key Laboratory of Solar Activity and Space Weather, National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院国家空间科学中心太阳活动与空间天气国家重点实验室）
