Deep learning methods have greatly increased the accuracy of face recognition, but an old problem still persists: accuracy is usually higher for men than women. It is often speculated that lower accuracy for women is caused by under-representation in the training data. This work investigates female under-representation in the training data is truly the cause of lower accuracy for females on test data. Using a state-of-the-art deep CNN, three different loss functions, and two training datasets, we train each on seven subsets with different male/female ratios, totaling forty two trainings, that are tested on three different datasets. Results show that (1) gender balance in the training data does not translate into gender balance in the test accuracy, (2) the "gender gap" in test accuracy is not minimized by a gender-balanced training set, but by a training set with more male images than female images, and (3) training to minimize the accuracy gap does not result in highest female, male or average accuracy
Johns Hopkins University（约翰斯·霍普金斯大学）；University of Maryland, College Park（马里兰大学学院公园分校）
State-of-the-art deep networks implicitly encode gender information while being trained for face recognition. Gender is often viewed as an important attribute with respect to identifying faces. However, the implicit encoding of gender information in face descriptors has two major issues: (a.) It makes the descriptors susceptible to privacy leakage, i.e. a malicious agent can be trained to predict the face gender from such descriptors. (b.) It appears to contribute to gender bias in face recognition, i.e. we find a significant difference in the recognition accuracy of DCNNs on male and female f…
University of North Carolina Wilmington（北卡罗来纳大学威尔明顿分校）；Elon University（埃隆大学）；Emory University（埃默里大学）
Aging or gender variation can affect the face recognition performance dramatically. While most of the face recognition studies are focused on the variation of pose, illumination and expression, it is important to consider the influence of gender effect and how to design an effective matching framework. In this paper, we address these problems on a very large longitudinal database MORPH-II which contains 55,134 face images of 13,617 individuals. First, we consider four comprehensive experiments with different combination of gender distribution and subset size, including: 1) equal gender distrib…
On the Illusion of Gender Bias in Face Recognition: Explaining the Fairness Issue Through Non-demographic Attributes
Paderborn University（帕德博恩大学）；Technical University of Darmstadt（达姆施塔特技术大学）；University of Notre Dame（诺特丹大学）；Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz（美因茨约翰· Gutenberg大学）
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, The Maryland Test Facility Science and Technology Directorate（美国国土安全部、马里兰州测试设施科技总监办公室）
Human face features can be used to determine individual identity as well as demographic information like gender and race. However, the extent to which black-box commercial face recognition algorithms (CFRAs) use gender and race features to determine identity is poorly understood despite increasing deployments by government and industry. In this study, we quantified the degree to which gender and race features influenced face recognition similarity scores between different people, i.e. non-mated scores. We ran this study using five different CFRAs and a sample of 333 diverse test subjects. As a…
Nowadays research has expanded to extracting auxiliary information from various biometric techniques like fingerprints, face, iris, palm and voice . This information contains some major features like gender, age, beard, mustache, scars, height, hair, skin color, glasses, weight, facial marks and tattoos. All this information contributes strongly to identification of human. The major challenges that come across face recognition are to find age & gender of the person. This paper contributes a survey of various face recognition techniques for finding the age and gender. The existing techniques ar…
Face biometrics are playing a key role in making modern smart city applications more secure and usable. Commonly, the recognition threshold of a face recognition system is adjusted based on the degree of security for the considered use case. The likelihood of a match can be for instance decreased by setting a high threshold in case of a payment transaction verification. Prior work in face recognition has unfortunately showed that error rates are usually higher for certain demographic groups. These disparities have hence brought into question the fairness of systems empowered with face biometri…
Mutah University（穆塔大学）；Ministry of environment（环境部）；Eötvós Loránd University（罗兰大学）；University of Tabuk（塔布克大学）；Islamic University of Madinah（麦地那伊斯兰大学）；Cranfield University（克兰菲尔德大学）；University of Cincinnati（辛辛那提大学）
Biometric recognition based on the full face is an extensive research area. However, using only partially visible faces, such as in the case of veiled-persons, is a challenging task. Deep convolutional neural network (CNN) is used in this work to extract the features from veiled-person face images. We found that the sixth and the seventh fully connected layers, FC6 and FC7 respectively, in the structure of the VGG19 network provide robust features with each of these two layers containing 4096 features. The main objective of this work is to test the ability of deep learning based automated comp…
Recent news articles have accused face recognition of being "biased", "sexist" or "racist". There is consensus in the research literature that face recognition accuracy is lower for females, who often have both a higher false match rate and a higher false non-match rate. However, there is little published research aimed at identifying the cause of lower accuracy for females. For instance, the 2019 Face Recognition Vendor Test that documents lower female accuracy across a broad range of algorithms and datasets also lists "Analyze cause and effect" under the heading "What we did not do". We pres…
Samsung-PDMI Joint AI Center, St. Petersburg Department of Steklov Institute of Mathematics（三星-PDMI联合人工智能中心，斯捷克洛夫数学研究所圣彼得堡分部）；National Research University Higher School of Economics（国立研究型高等经济学院）
This paper is focused on the automatic extraction of persons and their attributes (gender, year of born) from album of photos and videos. We propose the two-stage approach, in which, firstly, the convolutional neural network simultaneously predicts age/gender from all photos and additionally extracts facial representations suitable for face identification. We modified the MobileNet, which is preliminarily trained to perform face recognition, in order to additionally recognize age and gender. In the second stage of our approach, extracted faces are grouped using hierarchical agglomerative clust…
Halmstad University（哈尔姆斯塔德大学）；University of Balearic Islands（巴利阿里群岛大学）
We address the use of selfie ocular images captured with smartphones to estimate age and gender. Partial face occlusion has become an issue due to the mandatory use of face masks. Also, the use of mobile devices has exploded, with the pandemic further accelerating the migration to digital services. However, state-of-the-art solutions in related tasks such as identity or expression recognition employ large Convolutional Neural Networks, whose use in mobile devices is infeasible due to hardware limitations and size restrictions of downloadable applications. To counteract this, we adapt two exist…
University of Notre Dame（圣母大学）；Florida Institute of Technology（佛罗里达理工学院）
Media reports have accused face recognition of being ''biased'', ''sexist'' and ''racist''. There is consensus in the research literature that face recognition accuracy is lower for females, who often have both a higher false match rate and a higher false non-match rate. However, there is little published research aimed at identifying the cause of lower accuracy for females. For instance, the 2019 Face Recognition Vendor Test that documents lower female accuracy across a broad range of algorithms and datasets also lists ''Analyze cause and effect'' under the heading ''What we did not do''. We …
University of Notre Dame（圣母大学）；Florida Institute of Technology（佛罗里达理工学院）
It is broadly accepted that there is a "gender gap" in face recognition accuracy, with females having higher false match and false non-match rates. However, relatively little is known about the cause(s) of this gender gap. Even the recent NIST report on demographic effects lists "analyze cause and effect" under "what we did not do". We first demonstrate that female and male hairstyles have important differences that impact face recognition accuracy. In particular, compared to females, male facial hair contributes to creating a greater average difference in appearance between different male fac…
This paper is the first to explore the question of whether images that are classified incorrectly by a face analytics algorithm (e.g., gender classification) are any more or less likely to participate in an image pair that results in a face recognition error. We analyze results from three different gender classification algorithms (one open-source and two commercial), and two face recognition algorithms (one open-source and one commercial), on image sets representing four demographic groups (African-American female and male, Caucasian female and male). For impostor image pairs, our results sho…
Istanbul Technical University（伊斯坦布尔理工大学）；Massachusetts Institute of Technology（麻省理工学院）
Age and gender are complementary soft biometric traits for face recognition. Successful estimation of age and gender from facial images taken under real-world conditions can contribute improving the identification results in the wild. In this study, in order to achieve robust age and gender classification in the wild, we have benefited from Deep Convolutional Neural Networks based representation. We have explored transferability of existing deep convolutional neural network (CNN) models for age and gender classification. The generic AlexNet-like architecture and domain specific VGG-Face CNN mo…
Realistic age-progressed photos provide invaluable biometric information in a wide range of applications. In recent years, deep learning-based approaches have made remarkable progress in modeling the aging process of the human face. Nevertheless, it remains a challenging task to generate accurate age-progressed faces from infant or toddler photos. In particular, the lack of visually detectable gender characteristics and the drastic appearance changes in early life contribute to the difficulty of the task. We propose a new deep learning method inspired by the successful Conditional Adversarial …
The University of Texas at Dallas（德克萨斯大学达拉斯分校）；L. D. College of Engineering（L. D.工程学院）；Ahmedabad University（艾哈迈达巴德大学）；Dosepack LLC（Dosepack有限责任公司）；Meditab Software Inc.（Meditab软件公司）
How can we improve the facial soft-biometric classification with help of the human visual system? This paper explores the use of saliency which is equivalent to the human visual system to classify Age, Gender and Facial Expression soft-biometric for facial images. Using the Deep Multi-level Network (ML-Net) [1] and off-the-shelf face detector [2], we propose our approach - SAF-BAGE, which first detects the face in the test image, increases the Bounding Box (B-Box) margin by 30%, finds the saliency map using ML-Net, with 30% reweighted ratio of saliency map, it multiplies with the input cropped…
Similarity scores in face recognition represent the proximity between pairs of images as computed by a matching algorithm. Given a large set of images and the proximities between all pairs, a similarity score space is defined. Cluster analysis was applied to the similarity score space to develop various taxonomies. Given the number of subjects in the dataset, we used hierarchical methods to aggregate images of the same subject. We also explored the hierarchy above and below the subject level, including clusters that reflect gender and ethnicity. Evidence supports the existence of clustering by…
University of Notre Dame（圣母大学）；Florida Institute of Technology（佛罗里达理工学院）
We present a comprehensive analysis of how and why face recognition accuracy differs between men and women. We show that accuracy is lower for women due to the combination of (1) the impostor distribution for women having a skew toward higher similarity scores, and (2) the genuine distribution for women having a skew toward lower similarity scores. We show that this phenomenon of the impostor and genuine distributions for women shifting closer towards each other is general across datasets of African-American, Caucasian, and Asian faces. We show that the distribution of facial expressions may d…
Michigan State University（密歇根州立大学）；International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad（海得拉巴国际信息技术研究所）
In this paper, we design and evaluate a convolutional autoencoder that perturbs an input face image to impart privacy to a subject. Specifically, the proposed autoencoder transforms an input face image such that the transformed image can be successfully used for face recognition but not for gender classification. In order to train this autoencoder, we propose a novel training scheme, referred to as semi-adversarial training in this work. The training is facilitated by attaching a semi-adversarial module consisting of a pseudo gender classifier and a pseudo face matcher to the autoencoder. The …
KyungPook National University（庆北国立大学）；University of Massachusetts Lowell（马萨诸塞大学洛厄尔分校）
This is a study on facial information analysis technology for estimating gender and age, and poses are estimated using a transformation relationship matrix between the camera coordinate system and the world coordinate system for estimating the pose of a face image. Gender classification was relatively simple compared to age estimation, and age estimation was made possible using deep learning-based facial recognition technology. A comparative CNN was proposed to calculate the experimental results using the purchased database and the public database, and deep learning-based gender classification…
In this paper, we propose a novel explanatory framework aimed to provide a better understanding of how face recognition models perform as the underlying data characteristics (protected attributes: gender, ethnicity, age; non-protected attributes: facial hair, makeup, accessories, face orientation and occlusion, image distortion, emotions) on which they are tested change. With our framework, we evaluate ten state-of-the-art face recognition models, comparing their fairness in terms of security and usability on two data sets, involving six groups based on gender and ethnicity. We then analyze th…
Soft biometric attributes such as gender, ethnicity or age may provide useful information for biometrics and forensics applications. Researchers used, e.g., face, gait, iris, and hand, etc. to classify such attributes. Even though hand has been widely studied for biometric recognition, relatively less attention has been given to soft biometrics from hand. Previous studies of soft biometrics based on hand images focused on gender and well-controlled imaging environment. In this paper, the gender and ethnicity classification in uncontrolled environment are considered. Gender and ethnicity labels…
Johns Hopkins University（约翰斯·霍普金斯大学）；University of Maryland, College Park（马里兰大学学院公园分校）
Face recognition networks encode information about sensitive attributes while being trained for identity classification. Such encoding has two major issues: (a) it makes the face representations susceptible to privacy leakage (b) it appears to contribute to bias in face recognition. However, existing bias mitigation approaches generally require end-to-end training and are unable to achieve high verification accuracy. Therefore, we present a descriptor-based adversarial de-biasing approach called `Protected Attribute Suppression System (PASS)'. PASS can be trained on top of descriptors obtained…
We present a multi-purpose algorithm for simultaneous face detection, face alignment, pose estimation, gender recognition, smile detection, age estimation and face recognition using a single deep convolutional neural network (CNN). The proposed method employs a multi-task learning framework that regularizes the shared parameters of CNN and builds a synergy among different domains and tasks. Extensive experiments show that the network has a better understanding of face and achieves state-of-the-art result for most of these tasks.
Michigan State University（密歇根州立大学）；University of Wisconsin – Madison（威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校）
Recent research has established the possibility of deducing soft-biometric attributes such as age, gender and race from an individual's face image with high accuracy. However, this raises privacy concerns, especially when face images collected for biometric recognition purposes are used for attribute analysis without the person's consent. To address this problem, we develop a technique for imparting soft biometric privacy to face images via an image perturbation methodology. The image perturbation is undertaken using a GAN-based Semi-Adversarial Network (SAN) - referred to as PrivacyNet - that…
Visa Inc.（Visa公司）；Harvard John A. Paulson School Of Engineering And Applied Sciences（哈佛大学约翰·A·保尔森工程与应用科学学院）；FM: Systems（FM: Systems公司）；Autodesk（Autodesk公司）
Gender classification algorithms have important applications in many domains today such as demographic research, law enforcement, as well as human-computer interaction. Recent research showed that algorithms trained on biased benchmark databases could result in algorithmic bias. However, to date, little research has been carried out on gender classification algorithms' bias towards gender minorities subgroups, such as the LGBTQ and the non-binary population, who have distinct characteristics in gender expression. In this paper, we began by conducting surveys on existing benchmark databases for…
Shenzhen Deepcam Information Technologies（深圳深瞳信息技术公司）；LinkSprite Technologies（联芯通科技公司）
We present the improved network architecture, data augmentation, and training strategies for the Webface track and Insightface/Glint360K track of the masked face recognition challenge of ICCV2021. One of the key goals is to have a balanced performance of masked and standard face recognition. In order to prevent the overfitting for the masked face recognition, we control the total number of masked faces by not more than 10\% of the total face recognition in the training dataset. We propose a few key changes to the face recognition network including a new stem unit, drop block, face detection an…
Human exhibit rich gender cues in both appearance and behavior. In computer vision domain, gender recognition from facial appearance have been extensively studied, while facial behavior based gender recognition studies remain rare. In this work, we first demonstrate that facial expressions influence the gender patterns presented in 3D face, and gender recognition performance increases when training and testing within the same expression. In further, we design experiments which directly extract the morphological changes resulted from facial expressions as features, for expression-based gender r…
Recent research has proposed the use of Semi Adversarial Networks (SAN) for imparting privacy to face images. SANs are convolutional autoencoders that perturb face images such that the perturbed images cannot be reliably used by an attribute classifier (e.g., a gender classifier) but can still be used by a face matcher for matching purposes. However, the generalizability of SANs across multiple arbitrary gender classifiers has not been demonstrated in the literature. In this work, we tackle the generalization issue by designing an ensemble SAN model that generates a diverse set of perturbed ou…
Privacy concerns in the modern digital age have prompted researchers to develop techniques that allow users to selectively suppress certain information in collected data while allowing for other information to be extracted. In this regard, Semi-Adversarial Networks (SAN) have recently emerged as a method for imparting soft-biometric privacy to face images. SAN enables modifications of input face images so that the resulting face images can still be reliably used by arbitrary conventional face matchers for recognition purposes, while attribute classifiers, such as gender classifiers, are confou…
University of Southern California（南加州大学）；Army Research Laboratory（陆军研究实验室）
A light-weight low-resolution face gender classification method, called FaceHop, is proposed in this research. We have witnessed rapid progress in face gender classification accuracy due to the adoption of deep learning (DL) technology. Yet, DL-based systems are not suitable for resource-constrained environments with limited networking and computing. FaceHop offers an interpretable non-parametric machine learning solution. It has desired characteristics such as a small model size, a small training data amount, low training complexity, and low-resolution input images. FaceHop is developed with …
Gender classification aims at recognizing a person's gender. Despite the high accuracy achieved by state-of-the-art methods for this task, there is still room for improvement in generalized and unrestricted datasets. In this paper, we advocate a new strategy inspired by the behavior of humans in gender recognition. Instead of dealing with the face image as a sole feature, we rely on the combination of isolated facial features and a holistic feature which we call the foggy face. Then, we use these features to train deep convolutional neural networks followed by an AdaBoost-based score fusion to…
Face-voice Association across LAnguages and Gender (FLAG) 2027 Challenge Evaluation Plan
Johannes Kepler University（约翰·开普勒大学）；University of Michigan（密歇根大学）；University of Engineering and Technology（工程技术大学）；Fortemedia Singapore（Fortemedia新加坡公司）；Mohamed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence（穆罕默德·本·扎耶德人工智能大学）；Linz Institute of Technology（林茨理工学院）
In this paper, we present multimodal deep neural network frameworks for age and gender classification, which take input a profile face image as well as an ear image. Our main objective is to enhance the accuracy of soft biometric trait extraction from profile face images by additionally utilizing a promising biometric modality: ear appearance. For this purpose, we provided end-to-end multimodal deep learning frameworks. We explored different multimodal strategies by employing data, feature, and score level fusion. To increase representation and discrimination capability of the deep neural netw…
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey（罗格斯新泽西州立大学）
Facial landmarks constitute the most compressed representation of faces and are known to preserve information such as pose, gender and facial structure present in the faces. Several works exist that attempt to perform high-level face-related analysis tasks based on landmarks. In contrast, in this work, an attempt is made to tackle the inverse problem of synthesizing faces from their respective landmarks. The primary aim of this work is to demonstrate that information preserved by landmarks (gender in particular) can be further accentuated by leveraging generative models to synthesize correspon…
This work explores the biases in learning processes based on deep neural network architectures. We analyze how bias affects deep learning processes through a toy example using the MNIST database and a case study in gender detection from face images. We employ two gender detection models based on popular deep neural networks. We present a comprehensive analysis of bias effects when using an unbalanced training dataset on the features learned by the models. We show how bias impacts in the activations of gender detection models based on face images. We finally propose InsideBias, a novel method t…
The growth in electronic transactions and human machine interactions rely on the information such as gender, age, expression and ethnicity provided by the face image. In order to obtain these information, feature extraction plays a major role. In this paper, retrieval of age, gender, expression and race information from an individual face image is analysed using different feature extraction methods. The performance of four major feature extraction methods such as Active Appearance Model (AAM), Gabor wavelets, Local Binary Pattern (LBP) and Wavelet Decomposition (WD) are analyzed for gender rec…
Institute of Information Science, Academia Sinica（中央研究院资讯科学研究所）
Automatic age and gender classification based on unconstrained images has become essential techniques on mobile devices. With limited computing power, how to develop a robust system becomes a challenging task. In this paper, we present an efficient convolutional neural network (CNN) called lightweight multi-task CNN for simultaneous age and gender classification. Lightweight multi-task CNN uses depthwise separable convolution to reduce the model size and save the inference time. On the public challenging Adience dataset, the accuracy of age and gender classification is better than baseline mul…
Obtaining demographics information from video is valuable for a range of real-world applications. While approaches that leverage facial features for gender inference are very successful in restrained environments, they do not work in most real-world scenarios when the subject is not facing the camera, has the face obstructed or the face is not clear due to distance from the camera or poor resolution. We propose a weakly-supervised method for learning gender information of people based on their manner of walking. We make use of state-of-the art facial analysis models to automatically annotate f…
University of Maryland（马里兰大学）；Rutgers University（罗格斯大学）
We present an algorithm for simultaneous face detection, landmarks localization, pose estimation and gender recognition using deep convolutional neural networks (CNN). The proposed method called, HyperFace, fuses the intermediate layers of a deep CNN using a separate CNN followed by a multi-task learning algorithm that operates on the fused features. It exploits the synergy among the tasks which boosts up their individual performances. Additionally, we propose two variants of HyperFace: (1) HyperFace-ResNet that builds on the ResNet-101 model and achieves significant improvement in performance…
Gender is an important demographic attribute of people. This paper provides a survey of human gender recognition in computer vision. A review of approaches exploiting information from face and whole body (either from a still image or gait sequence) is presented. We highlight the challenges faced and survey the representative methods of these approaches. Based on the results, good performance have been achieved for datasets captured under controlled environments, but there is still much work that can be done to improve the robustness of gender recognition under real-life environments.
Soft biometrics inference in surveillance scenarios is a topic of interest for various applications, particularly in security-related areas. However, soft biometric analysis is not extensively reported in wild conditions. In particular, previous works on gender recognition report their results in face datasets, with relatively good image quality and frontal poses. Given the uncertainty of the availability of the facial region in wild conditions, we consider that these methods are not adequate for surveillance settings. To overcome these limitations, we: 1) present frontal and wild face version…
We demonstrate an approach to face attribute detection that retains or improves attribute detection accuracy across gender and race subgroups by learning demographic information prior to learning the attribute detection task. The system, which we call InclusiveFaceNet, detects face attributes by transferring race and gender representations learned from a held-out dataset of public race and gender identities. Leveraging learned demographic representations while withholding demographic inference from the downstream face attribute detection task preserves potential users' demographic privacy whil…
This paper proposes a fusion-based gender recognition method which uses facial images as input. Firstly, this paper utilizes pre-processing and a landmark detection method in order to find the important landmarks of faces. Thereafter, four different frameworks are proposed which are inspired by state-of-the-art gender recognition systems. The first framework extracts features using Local Binary Pattern (LBP) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and uses back propagation neural network. The second framework uses Gabor filters, PCA, and kernel Support Vector Machine (SVM). The third framework …
University of Beira Interior（贝拉内陆大学）；IT: Instituto de Telecomunicações（电信研究所）
Soft biometrics analysis is seen as an important research topic, given its relevance to various applications. However, even though it is frequently seen as a solved task, it can still be very hard to perform in wild conditions, under varying image conditions, uncooperative poses, and occlusions. Considering the gender trait as our topic of study, we report an extensive analysis of the feasibility of its inference regarding image (resolution, luminosity, and blurriness) and subject-based features (face and body keypoints confidence). Using three state-of-the-art datasets (PETA, PA-100K, RAP) an…
National Institute of Development Administration（国家发展管理研究院）
A novel methodology for gender classification is presented in this paper. It extracts feature from local region of a face using gray color intensity difference. The facial area is divided into sub-regions and GDP histogram extracted from those regions are concatenated into a single vector to represent the face. The classification accuracy obtained by using support vector machine has outperformed all traditional feature descriptors for gender classification. It is evaluated on the images collected from FERET database and obtained very high accuracy.
In this paper, we tackle the classification of gender in facial images with deep learning. Our convolutional neural networks (CNN) use the VGG-16 architecture [1] and are pretrained on ImageNet for image classification. Our proposed method (2^B3^C) first detects the face in the facial image, increases the margin of a detected face by 50%, cropping the face with two boxes three crop schemes (Left, Middle, and Right crop) and extracts the CNN predictions on the cropped schemes. The CNNs of our method is fine-tuned on the Adience and LFW with gender annotations. We show the effectiveness of our m…
Big Data Research Center, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University（伊斯兰阿扎德大学纳贾法巴德分校大数据研究中心）
Human identification is a much attention problem in computer vision. Gender classification plays an important role in human identification as preprocess step. So far, various methods have been proposed to solve this problem. Absolutely, classification accuracy is the main challenge for researchers in gender classification. But, some challenges such as rotation, gray scale variations, pose, illumination changes may be occurred in smart phone image capturing. In this respect, a multi step approach is proposed in this paper to classify genders in human face images based on improved local binary p…
Existing public face datasets are strongly biased toward Caucasian faces, and other races (e.g., Latino) are significantly underrepresented. This can lead to inconsistent model accuracy, limit the applicability of face analytic systems to non-White race groups, and adversely affect research findings based on such skewed data. To mitigate the race bias in these datasets, we construct a novel face image dataset, containing 108,501 images, with an emphasis of balanced race composition in the dataset. We define 7 race groups: White, Black, Indian, East Asian, Southeast Asian, Middle East, and Lati…
Fairness Without Labels: Pseudo-Balancing for Bias Mitigation in Face Gender Classification
National Institute of Informatics, Japan（日本信息机构国家研究所）；INESC-ID, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Portugal（里斯本大学技术高等学院、INESC-ID，葡萄牙）；University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands（荷兰阿姆斯特丹大学）；LIMSI, CNRS / Université Paris-Saclay, France（法国CNRS/巴黎萨克雷大学LIMSI）
