Landmark localization is a challenging problem in computer vision with a multitude of applications. Recent deep learning based methods have shown improved results by regressing likelihood maps instead of regressing the coordinates directly. However, setting the precision of these regression targets during the training is a cumbersome process since it creates a trade-off between trainability vs localization accuracy. Using precise targets introduces a significant sampling bias and hence makes the training more difficult, whereas using imprecise targets results in inaccurate landmark detectors. In this paper, we introduce "Adaloss", an objective function that adapts itself during the training by updating the target precision based on the training statistics. This approach does not require setting problem-specific parameters and shows improved stability in training and better localization accuracy during inference. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method in three different applications of landmark localization: 1) the challenging task of precisely detecting catheter tips in medical X-ray images, 2) localizing surgical instruments in endoscopic images, and 3) localizing facial features on in-the-wild images where we show state-of-the-art results on the 300-W benchmark dataset.
MILA-University of Montreal（蒙特利尔大学MILA研究所）；NVIDIA（英伟达）；Ecole Polytechnique of Montreal（蒙特利尔高等理工学院）；CIFAR（加拿大高等研究院）；Facebook AI Research（脸书人工智能研究院）
We present two techniques to improve landmark localization in images from partially annotated datasets. Our primary goal is to leverage the common situation where precise landmark locations are only provided for a small data subset, but where class labels for classification or regression tasks related to the landmarks are more abundantly available. First, we propose the framework of sequential multitasking and explore it here through an architecture for landmark localization where training with class labels acts as an auxiliary signal to guide the landmark localization on unlabeled data. A key…
Peking University（北京大学）；Deepwise AI Lab（深睿医疗人工智能实验室）；Microsoft Research Asia（微软亚洲研究院）；The University of Hong Kong（香港大学）
As an important upstream task for many medical applications, supervised landmark localization still requires non-negligible annotation costs to achieve desirable performance. Besides, due to cumbersome collection procedures, the limited size of medical landmark datasets impacts the effectiveness of large-scale self-supervised pre-training methods. To address these challenges, we propose a two-stage framework for one-shot medical landmark localization, which first infers landmarks by unsupervised registration from the labeled exemplar to unlabeled targets, and then utilizes these noisy pseudo l…
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute（伦斯勒理工学院）；National Institutes of Health（美国国立卫生研究院）；National Cancer Institute（美国国家癌症研究所）；The State University of New York Upstate Medical University（纽约州立大学上州医科大学）
In this work, we propose to explicitly use the landmarks of prostate to guide the MR-TRUS image registration. We first train a deep neural network to automatically localize a set of meaningful landmarks, and then directly generate the affine registration matrix from the location of these landmarks. For landmark localization, instead of directly training a network to predict the landmark coordinates, we propose to regress a full-resolution distance map of the landmark, which is demonstrated effective in avoiding statistical bias to unsatisfactory performance and thus improving performance. We t…
University of Oulu（奥卢大学）；Oulu University Hospital（奥卢大学医院）；Aalto University（阿尔托大学）
This paper addresses the challenge of localization of anatomical landmarks in knee X-ray images at different stages of osteoarthritis (OA). Landmark localization can be viewed as regression problem, where the landmark position is directly predicted by using the region of interest or even full-size images leading to large memory footprint, especially in case of high resolution medical images. In this work, we propose an efficient deep neural networks framework with an hourglass architecture utilizing a soft-argmax layer to directly predict normalized coordinates of the landmark points. We provi…
We present a novel method for multi image domain and multi-landmark definition learning for small dataset facial localization. Training a small dataset alongside a large(r) dataset helps with robust learning for the former, and provides a universal mechanism for facial landmark localization for new and/or smaller standard datasets. To this end, we propose a Vision Transformer encoder with a novel decoder with a definition agnostic shared landmark semantic group structured prior, that is learnt, as we train on more than one dataset concurrently. Due to our novel definition agnostic group prior …
We propose a novel cascaded framework, namely deep deformation network (DDN), for localizing landmarks in non-rigid objects. The hallmarks of DDN are its incorporation of geometric constraints within a convolutional neural network (CNN) framework, ease and efficiency of training, as well as generality of application. A novel shape basis network (SBN) forms the first stage of the cascade, whereby landmarks are initialized by combining the benefits of CNN features and a learned shape basis to reduce the complexity of the highly nonlinear pose manifold. In the second stage, a point transformer ne…
Center for Research on Intelligent Perception and Computing (CRIPAC)（智能感知与计算研究中心）；National Laboratory of Pattern Recognition (NLPR)（模式识别国家重点实验室）；Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CASIA)（中国科学院自动化研究所）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS)（中国科学院大学）；Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), CAS（中国科学院脑科学与智能技术卓越创新中心）
3D face shape is more expressive and viewpoint-consistent than its 2D counterpart. However, 3D facial landmark localization in a single image is challenging due to the ambiguous nature of landmarks under 3D perspective. Existing approaches typically adopt a suboptimal two-step strategy, performing 2D landmark localization followed by depth estimation. In this paper, we propose the Joint Voxel and Coordinate Regression (JVCR) method for 3D facial landmark localization, addressing it more effectively in an end-to-end fashion. First, a compact volumetric representation is proposed to encode the p…
Huazhong University of Science and Technology（华中科技大学）；Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics（武汉光电国家研究中心）；City University of Hong Kong（香港城市大学）；The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）；Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology（华中科技大学同济医学院附属协和医院）
Vertebral landmark localization is a crucial step for variant spine-related clinical applications, which requires detecting the corner points of 17 vertebrae. However, the neighbor landmarks often disturb each other for the homogeneous appearance of vertebrae, which makes vertebral landmark localization extremely difficult. In this paper, we propose multi-stage cascaded convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to split the single task into two sequential steps, i.e., center point localization to roughly locate 17 center points of vertebrae, and corner point localization to find 4 corner points for…
This paper investigates how to rapidly and accurately localize facial landmarks in unconstrained, cluttered environments rather than in the well segmented face images. We present a novel Backbone-Branches Fully-Convolutional Neural Network (BB-FCN), which produces facial landmark response maps directly from raw images without relying on pre-process or sliding window approaches. BB-FCN contains one backbone and a number of network branches with each corresponding to one landmark type, and it operates in a progressive manner. Specifically, the backbone roughly detects the locations of facial lan…
Landmark Localization plays a very important role in processing medical images as well as in disease identification. However, In medical field, it's a challenging task because of the complexity of medical images and the high requirement of accuracy for disease identification and treatment.There are two dominant ways to regress landmark coordination, one using the full convolutional network to regress the heatmaps of landmarks , which is a complex way and heatmap post-process strategies are needed, and the other way is to regress the coordination using CNN + Full Connective Network directly, wh…
Wuhan University of Technology（武汉理工大学）；Griffith University（格里菲斯大学）
Robust facial landmark localization remains a challenging task when faces are partially occluded. Recently, the cascaded pose regression has attracted increasing attentions, due to it's superior performance in facial landmark localization and occlusion detection. However, such an approach is sensitive to initialization, where an improper initialization can severly degrade the performance. In this paper, we propose a Robust Initialization for Cascaded Pose Regression (RICPR) by providing texture and pose correlated initial shapes for the testing face. By examining the correlation of local binar…
How can a single fully convolutional neural network (FCN) perform on object detection? We introduce DenseBox, a unified end-to-end FCN framework that directly predicts bounding boxes and object class confidences through all locations and scales of an image. Our contribution is two-fold. First, we show that a single FCN, if designed and optimized carefully, can detect multiple different objects extremely accurately and efficiently. Second, we show that when incorporating with landmark localization during multi-task learning, DenseBox further improves object detection accuray. We present experim…
Samsung AI Center（三星人工智能中心）；Queen Mary University London（伦敦玛丽女王大学）
Deep Learning models based on heatmap regression have revolutionized the task of facial landmark localization with existing models working robustly under large poses, non-uniform illumination and shadows, occlusions and self-occlusions, low resolution and blur. However, despite their wide adoption, heatmap regression approaches suffer from discretization-induced errors related to both the heatmap encoding and decoding process. In this work we show that these errors have a surprisingly large negative impact on facial alignment accuracy. To alleviate this problem, we propose a new approach for t…
University of Basel（巴塞尔大学）；University Hospital Basel（巴塞尔大学医院）；MIAC AG
We present an automated method for localizing an anatomical landmark in three-dimensional medical images. The method combines two recurrent neural networks in a coarse-to-fine approach: The first network determines a candidate neighborhood by analyzing the complete given image volume. The second network localizes the actual landmark precisely and accurately in the candidate neighborhood. Both networks take advantage of multi-dimensional gated recurrent units in their main layers, which allow for high model complexity with a comparatively small set of parameters. We localize the medullopontine …
In facial landmark localization tasks, various occlusions heavily degrade the localization accuracy due to the partial observability of facial features. This paper proposes a structural relation network (SRN) for occlusion-robust landmark localization. Unlike most existing methods that simply exploit the shape constraint, the proposed SRN aims to capture the structural relations among different facial components. These relations can be considered a more powerful shape constraint against occlusion. To achieve this, a hierarchical structural relation module (HSRM) is designed to hierarchically r…
Landmark localization in images and videos is a classic problem solved in various ways. Nowadays, with deep networks prevailing throughout machine learning, there are revamped interests in pushing facial landmark detection technologies to handle more challenging data. Most efforts use network objectives based on L1 or L2 norms, which have several disadvantages. First of all, the locations of landmarks are determined from generated heatmaps (i.e., confidence maps) from which predicted landmark locations (i.e., the means) get penalized without accounting for the spread: a high scatter correspond…
Zhejiang University（浙江大学）；The Chinese University of Hong Kong（香港中文大学）；Xidian University（西安电子科技大学）
Visual localization is of great importance in robotics and computer vision. Recently, scene coordinate regression based methods have shown good performance in visual localization in small static scenes. However, it still estimates camera poses from many inferior scene coordinates. To address this problem, we propose a novel visual localization framework that establishes 2D-to-3D correspondences between the query image and the 3D map with a series of learnable scene-specific landmarks. In the landmark generation stage, the 3D surfaces of the target scene are over-segmented into mosaic patches w…
landmarker: a Toolkit for Anatomical Landmark Localization in 2D/3D Images
IDLab；Department of Electronics and Information Systems（电子与信息系统系）；Ghent University（根特大学）；imec；Biometrics Research Group（生物识别研究组）；Department of Morphology, Imaging, Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Nutrition（解剖学、成像、骨科、康复和营养系）
A big, diverse and balanced training data is the key to the success of deep neural network training. However, existing publicly available datasets used in facial landmark localization are usually much smaller than those for other computer vision tasks. A small dataset without diverse and balanced training samples cannot support the training of a deep network effectively. To address the above issues, this paper presents a novel Separable Batch Normalization (SepBN) module with a Cross-protocol Network Training (CNT) strategy for robust facial landmark localization. Different from the standard B…
Rutgers University（罗格斯大学）；Binghamton University（宾厄姆顿大学）；IBM T. J. Watson（IBM T. J. 沃森研究中心）；SenseTime（商汤科技）
In this paper, we propose quantized densely connected U-Nets for efficient visual landmark localization. The idea is that features of the same semantic meanings are globally reused across the stacked U-Nets. This dense connectivity largely improves the information flow, yielding improved localization accuracy. However, a vanilla dense design would suffer from critical efficiency issue in both training and testing. To solve this problem, we first propose order-K dense connectivity to trim off long-distance shortcuts; then, we use a memory-efficient implementation to significantly boost the trai…
University of Maryland（马里兰大学）；Rutgers University（罗格斯大学）
We present an algorithm for simultaneous face detection, landmarks localization, pose estimation and gender recognition using deep convolutional neural networks (CNN). The proposed method called, HyperFace, fuses the intermediate layers of a deep CNN using a separate CNN followed by a multi-task learning algorithm that operates on the fused features. It exploits the synergy among the tasks which boosts up their individual performances. Additionally, we propose two variants of HyperFace: (1) HyperFace-ResNet that builds on the ResNet-101 model and achieves significant improvement in performance…
Graz University of Technology（格拉茨工业大学）；Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Clinical Forensic Imaging（路德维希·玻尔兹曼临床法医成像研究所）
In many medical image analysis applications, often only a limited amount of training data is available, which makes training of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) challenging. In this work on anatomical landmark localization, we propose a CNN architecture that learns to split the localization task into two simpler sub-problems, reducing the need for large training datasets. Our fully convolutional SpatialConfiguration-Net (SCN) dedicates one component to locally accurate but ambiguous candidate predictions, while the other component improves robustness to ambiguities by incorporating the spa…
Shenzhen University（深圳大学）；Nanfang Medical University（南方医科大学）；The Chinese University of Hong Kong（香港中文大学）
Volumetric ultrasound has great potentials in promoting prenatal examinations. Automated solutions are highly desired to efficiently and effectively analyze the massive volumes. Segmentation and landmark localization are two key techniques in making the quantitative evaluation of prenatal ultrasound volumes available in clinic. However, both tasks are non-trivial when considering the poor image quality, boundary ambiguity and anatomical variations in volumetric ultrasound. In this paper, we propose an effective framework for simultaneous segmentation and landmark localization in prenatal ultra…
National Key Laboratory of Fundamental Science on Synthetic Vision（视觉合成基础科学国家重点实验室）；School of Computer Science, Sichuan University（四川大学计算机学院）
In this paper, we propose a novel face alignment method using single deep network (SDN) on existing limited training data. Rather than using a max-pooling layer followed one convolutional layer in typical convolutional neural networks (CNN), SDN adopts a stack of 3 layer groups instead. Each group layer contains two convolutional layers and a max-pooling layer, which can extract the features hierarchically. Moreover, an effective data augmentation strategy and corresponding training skills are also proposed to over-come the lack of training images on COFW and 300-W da-tasets. The experiment re…
the Ohio State University（俄亥俄州立大学）；Xi’an Jiaotong University（西安交通大学）；United States Air Force（美国空军）；University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill（北卡罗来纳大学教堂山分校）；SOVE Inc（SOVE公司）；ShanghaiTech University（上海科技大学）
Accurately segmenting teeth and identifying the corresponding anatomical landmarks on dental mesh models are essential in computer-aided orthodontic treatment. Manually performing these two tasks is time-consuming, tedious, and, more importantly, highly dependent on orthodontists' experiences due to the abnormality and large-scale variance of patients' teeth. Some machine learning-based methods have been designed and applied in the orthodontic field to automatically segment dental meshes (e.g., intraoral scans). In contrast, the number of studies on tooth landmark localization is still limited…
Graz University of Technology（格拉茨理工大学）；Medical University of Graz（格拉茨医科大学）；The University of Auckland（奥克兰大学）
In landmark localization, due to ambiguities in defining their exact position, landmark annotations may suffer from large observer variabilities, which result in uncertain annotations. To model the annotation ambiguities of the training dataset, we propose to learn anisotropic Gaussian parameters modeling the shape of the target heatmap during optimization. Furthermore, our method models the prediction uncertainty of individual samples by fitting anisotropic Gaussian functions to the predicted heatmaps during inference. Besides state-of-the-art results, our experiments on datasets of hand radi…
Nanjing University of Science and Technology（南京理工大学）；The University of Adelaide（阿德莱德大学）；Australian Centre for Robotic Vision（澳大利亚机器人视觉中心）；Nanjing University（南京大学）
Landmark/pose estimation in single monocular images have received much effort in computer vision due to its important applications. It remains a challenging task when input images severe occlusions caused by, e.g., adverse camera views. Under such circumstances, biologically implausible pose predictions may be produced. In contrast, human vision is able to predict poses by exploiting geometric constraints of landmark point inter-connectivity. To address the problem, by incorporating priors about the structure of pose components, we propose a novel structure-aware fully convolutional network to…
Aortic root landmark localization with optimal transport loss for heatmap regression
Meiji Institute for Advanced Study of Mathematical Sciences, Meiji University（明治大学先端数学研究所）；The Jikei University School of Medicine（慈惠医科大学）；Sendai Kousei Hospital（仙台厚生病院）；School of Interdisciplinary Mathematical Sciences, Meiji University（明治大学跨学科数学学部）
The University of Sydney（悉尼大学）；JD Explore Academy（京东探索研究院）
Heatmap regression has become the mainstream methodology for deep learning-based semantic landmark localization, including in facial landmark localization and human pose estimation. Though heatmap regression is robust to large variations in pose, illumination, and occlusion in unconstrained settings, it usually suffers from a sub-pixel localization problem. Specifically, considering that the activation point indices in heatmaps are always integers, quantization error thus appears when using heatmaps as the representation of numerical coordinates. Previous methods to overcome the sub-pixel loca…
PAL-Net: A Point-Wise CNN with Patch-Attention for 3D Facial Landmark Localization
Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy.（电子、信息与生物工程系，米兰理工学院，米兰，意大利）；Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.（健康生物医学科学系，米兰大学，米兰，意大利）；U.O. Laboratory of Applied Morphology, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, 20097 San Donato Milanese, Italy.（应用形态学实验室，IRCCS圣丹诺多临床医院，意大利）；Department of Biomedical, Surgical and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.（生物医学、外科和牙科学系，米兰大学，米兰，意大利）
Automatic anatomical landmark localization has made great strides by leveraging deep learning methods in recent years. The ability to quantify the uncertainty of these predictions is a vital component needed for these methods to be adopted in clinical settings, where it is imperative that erroneous predictions are caught and corrected. We propose Quantile Binning, a data-driven method to categorize predictions by uncertainty with estimated error bounds. Our framework can be applied to any continuous uncertainty measure, allowing straightforward identification of the best subset of predictions …
A key step to driver safety is to observe the driver's activities with the face being a key step in this process to extracting information such as head pose, blink rate, yawns, talking to passenger which can then help derive higher level information such as distraction, drowsiness, intent, and where they are looking. In the context of driving safety, it is important for the system perform robust estimation under harsh lighting and occlusion but also be able to detect when the occlusion occurs so that information predicted from occluded parts of the face can be taken into account properly. This…
PAII Inc.（PAII公司）；Ping An Technology（平安科技）；University of Rochester（罗切斯特大学）；University of Maryland（马里兰大学）；Chang Gung Memorial Hospital（长庚纪念医院）
Landmark localization plays an important role in medical image analysis. Learning based methods, including CNN and GCN, have demonstrated the state-of-the-art performance. However, most of these methods are fully-supervised and heavily rely on manual labeling of a large training dataset. In this paper, based on a fully-supervised graph-based method, DAG, we proposed a semi-supervised extension of it, termed few-shot DAG, \ie five-shot DAG. It first trains a DAG model on the labeled data and then fine-tunes the pre-trained model on the unlabeled data with a teacher-student SSL mechanism. In add…
Rethinking Medical Landmark Localization with Prototype Learning-based Progressive Offset Correction
Shenzhen University（深圳大学）；Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院香港创新研究院人工智能与机器人中心）；Boston Children’s Hospital（波士顿儿童医院）；Harvard Medical School（哈佛医学院）；School of Artificial Intelligence, Shenzhen University（深圳大学人工智能学院）；School of Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Nanjing Medical University（南京医科大学生物医学工程与信息学院）；National Engineering Laboratory for Big Data System Computing Technology, Shenzhen University（深圳大学大数据系统计算技术国家工程实验室）
Our goal is to design architectures that retain the groundbreaking performance of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) for landmark localization and at the same time are lightweight, compact and suitable for applications with limited computational resources. To this end, we make the following contributions: (a) we are the first to study the effect of neural network binarization on localization tasks, namely human pose estimation and face alignment. We exhaustively evaluate various design choices, identify performance bottlenecks, and more importantly propose multiple orthogonal ways to boost p…
VerteNet -- A Multi-Context Hybrid CNN Transformer for Accurate Vertebral Landmark Localization in Lateral Spine DXA Images
Centre for AI \& ML, School of Science, Edith Cowan University, Australia Nutrition \& Health Innovation Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Australia School of Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China School of Medical；Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia Park Nicollet Clinic；HealthPartners Institute, Minnesota, USA Department of Medicine；Radiology, University of Manitoba, Manitoba, Canada Department of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada Computer Science；Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
Erasmus MC（伊拉斯谟大学医学中心）；Delft University of Technology（代尔夫特理工大学）
Pavlovian eyeblink conditioning is a powerful experiment used in the field of neuroscience to measure multiple aspects of how we learn in our daily life. To track the movement of the eyelid during an experiment, researchers have traditionally made use of potentiometers or electromyography. More recently, the use of computer vision and image processing alleviated the need for these techniques but currently employed methods require human intervention and are not fast enough to enable real-time processing. In this work, a face- and landmark-detection algorithm have been carefully combined in orde…
Our goal is to design architectures that retain the groundbreaking performance of CNNs for landmark localization and at the same time are lightweight, compact and suitable for applications with limited computational resources. To this end, we make the following contributions: (a) we are the first to study the effect of neural network binarization on localization tasks, namely human pose estimation and face alignment. We exhaustively evaluate various design choices, identify performance bottlenecks, and more importantly propose multiple orthogonal ways to boost performance. (b) Based on our ana…
JD AI（京东人工智能）；Institute of Automation, Chinese Academic of Sciences（中国科学院自动化研究所）；Baidu Inc.（百度公司）；University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学）；Vision and Image Center of Meituan（美团视觉与图像中心）
Facial landmark localization is a very crucial step in numerous face related applications, such as face recognition, facial pose estimation, face image synthesis, etc. However, previous competitions on facial landmark localization (i.e., the 300-W, 300-VW and Menpo challenges) aim to predict 68-point landmarks, which are incompetent to depict the structure of facial components. In order to overcome this problem, we construct a challenging dataset, named JD-landmark. Each image is manually annotated with 106-point landmarks. This dataset covers large variations on pose and expression, which bri…
Bar-Ilan University（巴伊兰大学）；Roma Tre University（罗马第三大学）
The accurate localization of facial landmarks is at the core of face analysis tasks, such as face recognition and facial expression analysis, to name a few. In this work, we propose a novel localization approach based on a deep learning architecture that utilizes cascaded subnetworks with convolutional neural network units. The cascaded units of the first subnetwork estimate heatmap-based encodings of the landmarks locations, while the cascaded units of the second subnetwork receive as input the output of the corresponding heatmap estimation units, and refine them through regression. The propo…
Although facial landmark localization (FLL) approaches are becoming increasingly accurate for characterizing facial regions, one question remains unanswered: what is the impact of these approaches on subsequent related tasks? In this paper, the focus is put on facial expression recognition (FER), where facial landmarks are used for face registration, which is a common usage. Since the most used datasets for facial landmark localization do not allow for a proper measurement of performance according to the different difficulties (e.g., pose, expression, illumination, occlusion, motion blur), we …
Faculty of Engineering, University of Fukui（福井大学工学部）
Pole-like landmark has received increasing attention as a domain-invariant visual cue for visual robot self-localization across domains (e.g., seasons, times of day, weathers). However, self-localization using pole-like landmarks can be ill-posed for a passive observer, as many viewpoints may not provide any pole-like landmark view. To alleviate this problem, we consider an active observer and explore a novel "domain-invariant" next-best-view (NBV) planner that attains consistent performance over different domains (i.e., maintenance-free), without requiring the expensive task of training data …
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology（台湾科技大学）
Two approaches are proposed for cross-pose face recognition, one is based on the 3D reconstruction of facial components and the other is based on the deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). Unlike most 3D approaches that consider holistic faces, the proposed approach considers 3D facial components. It segments a 2D gallery face into components, reconstructs the 3D surface for each component, and recognizes a probe face by component features. The segmentation is based on the landmarks located by a hierarchical algorithm that combines the Faster R-CNN for face detection and the Reduced Tree Str…
University of Zagreb（萨格勒布大学）；Linköping University（林雪平大学）
Localization of salient facial landmark points, such as eye corners or the tip of the nose, is still considered a challenging computer vision problem despite recent efforts. This is especially evident in unconstrained environments, i.e., in the presence of background clutter and large head pose variations. Most methods that achieve state-of-the-art accuracy are slow, and, thus, have limited applications. We describe a method that can accurately estimate the positions of relevant facial landmarks in real-time even on hardware with limited processing power, such as mobile devices. This is achiev…
