Following improvements in deep neural networks, state-of-the-art networks have been proposed for human recognition using point clouds captured by LiDAR. However, the performance of these networks strongly depends on the training data. An issue with collecting training data is labeling. Labeling by humans is necessary to obtain the ground truth label; however, labeling requires huge costs. Therefore, we propose an automatic labeled data generation pipeline, for which we can change any parameters or data generation environments. Our approach uses a human model named Dhaiba and a background of Miraikan and consequently generated realistic artificial data. We present 500k+ data generated by the proposed pipeline. This paper also describes the specification of the pipeline and data details with evaluations of various approaches.
Tokyo Institute of Technology（东京工业大学）；National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology（产业技术综合研究所）
In this paper, we propose an automatic labeled sequential data generation pipeline for human segmentation and velocity estimation with point clouds. Considering the impact of deep neural networks, state-of-the-art network architectures have been proposed for human recognition using point clouds captured by Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR). However, one disadvantage is that legacy datasets may only cover the image domain without providing important label information and this limitation has disturbed the progress of research to date. Therefore, we develop an automatic labeled sequential data …
Beihang University（北京航空航天大学）；Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data and Brain Computing（大数据与脑计算北京先进创新中心）；Hangzhou Innovation Institution, Beihang University（北京航空航天大学杭州创新研究院）
Recently, the rapid development of Solid-State LiDAR (SSL) enables low-cost and efficient obtainment of 3D point clouds from the environment, which has inspired a large quantity of studies and applications. However, the non-uniformity of its scanning pattern, and the inconsistency of the ranging error distribution bring challenges to its calibration task. In this paper, we proposed a fully automatic calibration method for the non-repetitive scanning SSL and camera systems. First, a temporal-spatial-based geometric feature refinement method is presented, to extract effective features from SSL p…
HD (High Definition) map based on 3D lidar plays a vital role in autonomous vehicle localization, planning, decision-making, perception, etc. Many 3D lidar mapping technologies related to SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) are used in HD map construction to ensure its high accuracy. To evaluate the accuracy of 3D lidar mapping, the most common methods use ground truth of poses to calculate the error between estimated poses and ground truth, however it's usually so difficult to get the ground truth of poses in the actual lidar mapping for autonomous vehicle. In this paper, we proposed…
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou)（香港科技大学（广州））；Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）；HKUST Shenzhen-Hong Kong Collaborative Innovation Research Institute（香港科技大学深港协同创新研究院）；CWB Institute of Autonomous Driving（CWB自动驾驶研究院）
The combination of LiDARs and cameras enables a mobile robot to perceive environments with multi-modal data, becoming a key factor in achieving robust perception. Traditional frame cameras are sensitive to changing illumination conditions, motivating us to introduce novel event cameras to make LiDAR-camera fusion more complete and robust. However, to jointly exploit these sensors, the challenging extrinsic calibration problem should be addressed. This paper proposes an automatic checkerboard-based approach to calibrate extrinsics between a LiDAR and a frame/event camera, where four contributio…
Australian Centre for Field Robotics（澳大利亚野外机器人学中心）；University of Sydney（悉尼大学）
This paper proposes an automated method to obtain the extrinsic calibration parameters between a camera and a 3D lidar with as low as 16 beams. We use a checkerboard as a reference to obtain features of interest in both sensor frames. The calibration board centre point and normal vector are automatically extracted from the lidar point cloud by exploiting the geometry of the board. The corresponding features in the camera image are obtained from the camera's extrinsic matrix. We explain the reasons behind selecting these features, and why they are more robust compared to other possibilities. To…
For autonomous vehicles, an accurate calibration for LiDAR and camera is a prerequisite for multi-sensor perception systems. However, existing calibration techniques require either a complicated setting with various calibration targets, or an initial calibration provided beforehand, which greatly impedes their applicability in large-scale autonomous vehicle deployment. To tackle these issues, we propose a novel method to calibrate the extrinsic parameter for LiDAR and camera in road scenes. Our method introduces line features from static straight-line-shaped objects such as road lanes and pole…
Berkeley AI Research（伯克利人工智能研究院）；University of California, Berkeley（加州大学伯克利分校）；Huaqiao University（华侨大学）
LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) is an essential and widely adopted sensor for autonomous vehicles, particularly for those vehicles operating at higher levels (L4-L5) of autonomy. Recent work has demonstrated the promise of deep-learning approaches for LiDAR-based detection. However, deep-learning algorithms are extremely data hungry, requiring large amounts of labeled point-cloud data for training and evaluation. Annotating LiDAR point cloud data is challenging due to the following issues: 1) A LiDAR point cloud is usually sparse and has low resolution, making it difficult for human annota…
This paper presents a novel method for fully automatic and convenient extrinsic calibration of a 3D LiDAR and a panoramic camera with a normally printed chessboard. The proposed method is based on the 3D corner estimation of the chessboard from the sparse point cloud generated by one frame scan of the LiDAR. To estimate the corners, we formulate a full-scale model of the chessboard and fit it to the segmented 3D points of the chessboard. The model is fitted by optimizing the cost function under constraints of correlation between the reflectance intensity of laser and the color of the chessboar…
This paper proposes a hierarchical clustering approach for the segmentation of mobile LiDAR point clouds. We perform the hierarchical clustering on unorganized point clouds based on a proximity matrix. The dissimilarity measure in the proximity matrix is calculated by the Euclidean distances between clusters and the difference of normal vectors at given points. The main contribution of this paper is that we succeed to optimize the combination of clusters in the hierarchical clustering. The combination is obtained by achieving the matching of a bipartite graph, and optimized by solving the mini…
LiDAR sensors used in autonomous driving applications are negatively affected by adverse weather conditions. One common, but understudied effect, is the condensation of vehicle gas exhaust in cold weather. This everyday phenomenon can severely impact the quality of LiDAR measurements, resulting in a less accurate environment perception by creating artifacts like ghost object detections. In the literature, the semantic segmentation of adverse weather effects like rain and fog is achieved using learning-based approaches. However, such methods require large sets of labeled data, which can be extr…
WLTCL: Wide Field-of-View 3-D LiDAR Truck Compartment Automatic Localization System
School of Mechanical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology（湖北工业大学机械工程学院）；Hubei Key Laboratory of Modern Manufacturing Quality Engineering, Hubei University of Technology（湖北工业大学现代制造质量工程重点实验室）；Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院上海先进研究院）
University of Manchester（曼彻斯特大学）；Intel Corporation（英特尔公司）
LiDAR provides highly accurate 3D point clouds. However, data needs to be manually labelled in order to provide subsequent useful information. Manual annotation of such data is time consuming, tedious and error prone, and hence in this paper we present three automatic methods for annotating trees in LiDAR data. The first method requires high density point clouds and uses certain LiDAR data attributes for the purpose of tree identification, achieving almost 90% accuracy. The second method uses a voxel-based 3D Convolutional Neural Network on low density LiDAR datasets and is able to identify mo…
Co-Registration of aerial imagery and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data is quilt challenging because the different imaging mechanism causes significant geometric and radiometric distortions between such data. To tackle the problem, this paper proposes an automatic registration method based on structural features and three-dimension (3D) phase correlation. In the proposed method, the LiDAR point cloud data is first transformed into the intensity map, which is used as the reference image. Then, we employ the Fast operator to extract uniformly distributed interest points in the aerial imag…
Automatic extraction of road curbs from uneven, unorganized, noisy and massive 3D point clouds is a challenging task. Existing methods often project 3D point clouds onto 2D planes to extract curbs. However, the projection causes loss of 3D information which degrades the performance of the detection. This paper presents a robust, accurate and efficient method to extract road curbs from 3D mobile LiDAR point clouds. Our method consists of two steps: 1) extracting the candidate points of curbs based on the proposed novel energy function and 2) refining the candidate points using the proposed leas…
Daimler AG（戴姆勒股份公司）；Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)（卡尔斯鲁厄理工学院）；Forschungszentrum Informatik (FZI)（信息技术研究中心）
Mobile robots and autonomous vehicles rely on multi-modal sensor setups to perceive and understand their surroundings. Aside from cameras, LiDAR sensors represent a central component of state-of-the-art perception systems. In addition to accurate spatial perception, a comprehensive semantic understanding of the environment is essential for efficient and safe operation. In this paper we present a novel deep neural network architecture called LiLaNet for point-wise, multi-class semantic labeling of semi-dense LiDAR data. The network utilizes virtual image projections of the 3D point clouds for e…
Multimedia Laboratory, The Chinese University of Hong Kong（香港中文大学多媒体实验室）；State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University（浙江大学CAD&CG国家重点实验室）；SenseTime Research（商汤科技研究院）
Recent learning-based LiDAR odometry methods have demonstrated their competitiveness. However, most methods still face two substantial challenges: 1) the 2D projection representation of LiDAR data cannot effectively encode 3D structures from the point clouds; 2) the needs for a large amount of labeled data for training limit the application scope of these methods. In this paper, we propose a self-supervised LiDAR odometry method, dubbed SelfVoxeLO, to tackle these two difficulties. Specifically, we propose a 3D convolution network to process the raw LiDAR data directly, which extracts features…
YOCO: You Only Calibrate Once for Accurate Extrinsic Parameter in LiDAR-Camera Systems
China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing)（中国矿业大学（北京））；College of Geoscience and Surveying Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing)（中国矿业大学（北京）地球科学与测绘工程学院）
Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo（东京大学产业技术研究所）；Microsoft（微软）
In this paper, we propose a method of targetless and automatic Camera-LiDAR calibration. Our approach is an extension of hand-eye calibration framework to 2D-3D calibration. By using the sensor fusion odometry method, the scaled camera motions are calculated with high accuracy. In addition to this, we clarify the suitable motion for this calibration method. The proposed method only requires the three-dimensional point cloud and the camera image and does not need other information such as reflectance of LiDAR and to give initial extrinsic parameter. In the experiments, we demonstrate our method…
HeLiMOS: A Dataset for Moving Object Segmentation in 3D Point Clouds From Heterogeneous LiDAR Sensors
School of Electrical Engineering, KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology)（韩国科学技术院电气工程学院）；Center for Robotics, University of Bonn（波恩大学机器人中心）；Lamarr Institute for Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence（拉马尔机器学习与人工智能研究所）
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology（卡尔斯鲁厄理工学院）；The University of Tokyo（东京大学）；Line Corporation（Line公司）
Estimating the pose of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or drone is a challenging task. It is useful for many applications such as navigation, surveillance, tracking objects on the ground, and 3D reconstruction. In this work, we present a LiDAR-camera-based relative pose estimation method between a drone and a ground vehicle, using a LiDAR sensor and a fisheye camera on the vehicle's roof and another fisheye camera mounted under the drone. The LiDAR sensor directly observes the drone and measures its position, and the two cameras estimate the relative orientation using indirect observation of …
The Chinese University of Hong Kong（香港中文大学）；Sensetime（商汤科技）
Recent years have witnessed the rapid progress of perception algorithms on top of LiDAR, a widely adopted sensor for autonomous driving systems. These LiDAR-based solutions are typically data hungry, requiring a large amount of data to be labeled for training and evaluation. However, annotating this kind of data is very challenging due to the sparsity and irregularity of point clouds and more complex interaction involved in this procedure. To tackle this problem, we propose FLAVA, a systematic approach to minimizing human interaction in the annotation process. Specifically, we divide the annot…
We present a system for automatic converting of 2D mask object predictions and raw LiDAR point clouds into full 3D bounding boxes of objects. Because the LiDAR point clouds are partial, directly fitting bounding boxes to the point clouds is meaningless. Instead, we suggest that obtaining good results requires sharing information between \emph{all} objects in the dataset jointly, over multiple frames. We then make three improvements to the baseline. First, we address ambiguities in predicting the object rotations via direct optimization in this space while still backpropagating rotation predict…
The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of deep learning for coniferous/deciduous classification of individual trees from airborne LiDAR data. To enable efficient processing by a deep convolutional neural network (CNN), we designed two discrete representations using leaf-off and leaf-on LiDAR data: a digital surface model with four channels (DSMx4) and a set of four 2D views (4x2D). A training dataset of labeled tree crowns was generated via segmentation of tree crowns, followed by co-registration with field data. Potential mislabels due to GPS error or tree leaning were corrected…
Learning Geometric and Photometric Features from Panoramic LiDAR Scans for Outdoor Place Categorization
Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University（九州大学信息科学与电子工程研究生院）；Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology（加州理工学院喷气推进实验室）；Faculty of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University（九州大学信息科学与电子工程学部）；Technical University of Cartagena（卡塔赫纳技术大学）
The use of infrastructure sensor technology for traffic detection has already been proven several times. However, extrinsic sensor calibration is still a challenge for the operator. While previous approaches are unable to calibrate the sensors without the use of reference objects in the sensor field of view (FOV), we present an algorithm that is completely detached from external assistance and runs fully automatically. Our method focuses on the high-precision fusion of LiDAR point clouds and is evaluated in simulation as well as on real measurements. We set the LiDARs in a continuous pendulum …
University of California, Berkeley（加州大学伯克利分校）；Didi Chuxing（滴滴出行）；University of California, San Diego（加州大学圣迭戈分校）；Facebook Inc（Facebook公司）；Tsinghua University（清华大学）
Due to its robust and precise distance measurements, LiDAR plays an important role in scene understanding for autonomous driving. Training deep neural networks (DNNs) on LiDAR data requires large-scale point-wise annotations, which are time-consuming and expensive to obtain. Instead, simulation-to-real domain adaptation (SRDA) trains a DNN using unlimited synthetic data with automatically generated labels and transfers the learned model to real scenarios. Existing SRDA methods for LiDAR point cloud segmentation mainly employ a multi-stage pipeline and focus on feature-level alignment. They req…
We present a fully automatic approach for reconstructing compact 3D building models from large-scale airborne point clouds. A major challenge of urban reconstruction from airborne LiDAR point clouds lies in that the vertical walls are typically missing. Based on the observation that urban buildings typically consist of planar roofs connected with vertical walls to the ground, we propose an approach to infer the vertical walls directly from the data. With the planar segments of both roofs and walls, we hypothesize the faces of the building surface, and the final model is obtained by using an ex…
Exploring Scene Affinity for Semi-Supervised LiDAR Semantic Segmentation
School of Computer Science, Wuhan University（武汉大学计算机学院）；School of Artificial Intelligence, Wuhan University（武汉大学人工智能学院）；School of Computer Science and Technology, Hainan University（海南大学计算机科学与技术学院）；School of Electronic Information, Wuhan University（武汉大学电子信息学院）；State Key Lab. of LIESMARS, Wuhan University（武汉大学LIESMARS国家重点实验室）；Institute for Math & AI, Wuhan University（武汉大学数学与人工智能研究院）
Shanghai Jiao Tong University（上海交通大学）；Shanghai AI Laboratory（上海人工智能实验室）
Sensor-based environmental perception is a crucial part of the autonomous driving system. In order to get an excellent perception of the surrounding environment, an intelligent system would configure multiple LiDARs (3D Light Detection and Ranging) to cover the distant and near space of the car. The precision of perception relies on the quality of sensor calibration. This research aims at developing an accurate, automatic, and robust calibration strategy for multiple LiDAR systems in the general road scene. We thus propose CROON (automatiC multi-LiDAR CalibratiOn and Refinement method in rOad …
In this paper, we describe a strategy for training neural networks for object detection in range images obtained from one type of LiDAR sensor using labeled data from a different type of LiDAR sensor. Additionally, an efficient model for object detection in range images for use in self-driving cars is presented. Currently, the highest performing algorithms for object detection from LiDAR measurements are based on neural networks. Training these networks using supervised learning requires large annotated datasets. Therefore, most research using neural networks for object detection from LiDAR po…
School of Computer Science, Beijing Institute of Technology（北京理工大学计算机学院）；ETH Zurich（苏黎世联邦理工学院）；Inception Institute of Artificial Intelligence（起源人工智能研究院）
It is laborious to manually label point cloud data for training high-quality 3D object detectors. This work proposes a weakly supervised approach for 3D object detection, only requiring a small set of weakly annotated scenes, associated with a few precisely labeled object instances. This is achieved by a two-stage architecture design. Stage-1 learns to generate cylindrical object proposals under weak supervision, i.e., only the horizontal centers of objects are click-annotated on bird's view scenes. Stage-2 learns to refine the cylindrical proposals to get cuboids and confidence scores, using …
Chalmers University of Technology（查尔姆斯理工大学）；AB Volvo（沃尔沃集团）
Recent advances in the field of machine learning and computer vision have enabled the development of fast and accurate road detectors. Commonly such systems are trained within a supervised learning paradigm where both an input sensor's data and the corresponding ground truth label must be provided. The task of generating labels is commonly carried out by human annotators and it is notoriously time consuming and expensive. In this work, it is shown that a semi-supervised approach known as co-training can provide significant F1-score average improvements compared to supervised learning. In co-tr…
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology（香港科技大学）
Multiple LiDARs have progressively emerged on autonomous vehicles for rendering a wide field of view and dense measurements. However, the lack of precise calibration negatively affects their potential applications in localization and perception systems. In this paper, we propose a novel system that enables automatic multi-LiDAR calibration without any calibration target, prior environmental information, and initial values of the extrinsic parameters. Our approach starts with a hand-eye calibration for automatic initialization by aligning the estimated motions of each sensor. The resulting para…
Handong Global University（韩东国际大学）；Virginia Tech（弗吉尼亚理工大学）
This paper presents a novel automatic calibration system to estimate the extrinsic parameters of LiDAR mounted on a mobile platform for sensor misalignment inspection in the large-scale production of highly automated vehicles. To obtain subdegree and subcentimeter accuracy levels of extrinsic calibration, this study proposed a new concept of a target board with embedded photodetector arrays, named the PD-target system, to find the precise position of the correspondence laser beams on the target surface. Furthermore, the proposed system requires only the simple design of the target board at the…
Curbs are one of the essential elements of urban and highway traffic environments. Robust curb detection provides road structure information for motion planning in an autonomous driving system. Commonly, video cameras and 3D LiDARs are mounted on autonomous vehicles for curb detection. However, camera-based methods suffer from challenging illumination conditions. During the long period of time before wide application of Deep Neural Network (DNN) with point clouds, LiDAR-based curb detection methods are based on hand-crafted features, which suffer from poor detection in some complex scenes. Rec…
Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院自动化研究所）；Beijing Aerospace Changfeng Co.Ltd.（北京航天长峰股份有限公司）；Artificial Intelligence Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院人工智能研究院）
LiDAR based 3D object detectors typically need a large amount of detailed-labeled point cloud data for training, but these detailed labels are commonly expensive to acquire. In this paper, we propose a manual-label free 3D detection algorithm that leverages the CARLA simulator to generate a large amount of self-labeled training samples and introduces a novel Domain Adaptive VoxelNet (DA-VoxelNet) that can cross the distribution gap from the synthetic data to the real scenario. The self-labeled training samples are generated by a set of high quality 3D models embedded in a CARLA simulator and a…
Earlier work demonstrates the promise of deep-learning-based approaches for point cloud segmentation; however, these approaches need to be improved to be practically useful. To this end, we introduce a new model SqueezeSegV2 that is more robust to dropout noise in LiDAR point clouds. With improved model structure, training loss, batch normalization and additional input channel, SqueezeSegV2 achieves significant accuracy improvement when trained on real data. Training models for point cloud segmentation requires large amounts of labeled point-cloud data, which is expensive to obtain. To sideste…
Robert Bosch GmbH（罗伯特·博世有限公司）；Ulm University（乌尔姆大学）；KTH Royal Institute of Technology（瑞典皇家理工学院）
Training a deep object detector for autonomous driving requires a huge amount of labeled data. While recording data via on-board sensors such as camera or LiDAR is relatively easy, annotating data is very tedious and time-consuming, especially when dealing with 3D LiDAR points or radar data. Active learning has the potential to minimize human annotation efforts while maximizing the object detector's performance. In this work, we propose an active learning method to train a LiDAR 3D object detector with the least amount of labeled training data necessary. The detector leverages 2D region propos…
