Recent suggestions of a "photon underproduction crisis" (Kollmeier \etal\ 2014) have generated concern over the intensity and spectrum of ionizing photons in the metagalactic ultraviolet background (UVB). The balance of hydrogen photoionization and recombination determines the opacity of the low-redshift intergalactic medium (IGM). We calibrate the hydrogen photoionization rate ($Γ_{\rm H}$) by comparing {\it Hubble Space Telescope} spectroscopic surveys of the low-redshift column density distribution of \HI\ absorbers and the observed ($z < 0.4$) mean \Lya\ flux decrement, $D_A = (0.014)(1+z)^{2.2}$, to new cosmological simulations. The distribution, $f(N_{\rm HI}, z) \equiv d^2 {\cal N} / d(\log N_{\rm HI}) dz$, is consistent with an increased UVB that includes contributions from both quasars and galaxies. Our recommended fit, $Γ_{\rm H}(z) = (4.6 \times 10^{-14}$ s$^{-1})(1+z)^{4.4}$ for $0 < z < 0.47$, corresponds to unidirectional LyC photon flux $Φ_0 \approx 5700$~cm$^{-2}$~s$^{-1}$ at $z = 0$. This flux agrees with observed IGM metal ionization ratios (\CIII/\CIV\ and \SiIII/\SiIV) and suggests a 25-30\% contribution of \Lya\ absorbers to the cosmic baryon inventory. The primary uncertainties in the low-redshift UVB are the contribution from massive stars in galaxies and the LyC escape fraction ($f_{\rm esc}$), a highly directional quantity that is difficult to constrain statistically. We suggest that both quasars and low-mass starburst galaxies are important contributors to the ionizing UVB at $z < 2$. Their additional ionizing flux would resolve any crisis in photon underproduction.
The timing and duration of the reionization epoch is crucial to the emergence and evolution of structure in the universe. The relative roles that star-forming galaxies, active galactic nuclei and quasars play in contributing to the metagalactic ionizing background across cosmic time remains uncertain. Deep quasar counts provide insights into their role, but the potentially crucial contribution from star-formation is highly uncertain due to our poor understanding of the processes that allow ionizing radiation to escape into the intergalactic medium (IGM). The fraction of ionizing photons that e…
The observed scatter in intergalactic Lyman-$α$ opacity at $z \lesssim 6$ requires large-scale fluctuations in the neutral fraction of the intergalactic medium (IGM) after the expected end of reionization. Post-reionization models that explain this scatter invoke fluctuations in either the ionizing ultraviolet background (UVB) or IGM temperature. These models make very different predictions, however, for the relationship between Lyman-$α$ opacity and local density. Here we test these models using Lyman-$α$ emitting galaxies (LAEs) to trace the density field surrounding the longest and most opa…
Quasars and active galactic nuclei (AGN) are significant contributors to the metagalactic ionizing background at redshifts z < 3. Recent HST/COS composite spectra of AGN find a harder flux distribution in the Lyman continuum, F_nu ~ nu^{-alpha_s} (alpha_s = 1.41+/-0.15) compared to previous studies. This index appears to be inconsistent with observed He II / H I absorption ratios (eta) in the Lya forest. We explore effects of internal AGN absorption in the He II (4 ryd) continuum using an analytic source-function model of the ionizing background in which the emissivity (j_nu) arises from quasa…
Recent observations have shown that the scatter in opacities among coeval segments of the Lyman-alpha forest increases rapidly at z > 5. In this paper, we assess whether the large scatter can be explained by fluctuations in the ionizing background in the post-reionization intergalactic medium. We find that matching the observed scatter at z ~ 5.5 requires a short spatially averaged mean free path of < 15 comoving Mpc/h, a factor of > 3 shorter than direct measurements at z ~ 5.2. We argue that such rapid evolution in the mean free path is difficult to reconcile with our measurements of the glo…
Motivated by the claimed detection of a large population of faint active galactic nuclei (AGN) at high redshift, recent studies have proposed models in which AGN contribute significantly to the z > 4 H I ionizing background. In some models, AGN are even the chief sources of reionization. If correct, these models would make necessary a complete revision to the standard view that galaxies dominated the high-redshift ionizing background. It has been suggested that AGN-dominated models can better account for two recent observations that appear to be in conflict with the standard view: (1) large op…
We examine the statistics of the low-redshift Lyman-alpha forest from smoothed particle hydrodynamic simulations in light of recent improvements in the estimated evolution of the cosmic ultraviolet background (UVB) and recent observations from the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS). We find that the value of the metagalactic photoionization rate required by our simulations to match the observed properties of the low-redshift Lyman-alpha forest is a factor of 5 larger than the value predicted by state-of-the art models for the evolution of this quantity. This mismatch results in the mean flux de…
The amplitude of the metagalactic ultraviolet background (UVB) at large-scales is impacted by two factors. First, it naturally attenuates at scales larger than mean-free-path of UVB photons due to the absorption by neutral intergalactic medium. Second, there are discrete and rare ionizing sources distributing in the Universe, emitting the UVB photons, and thus enhancing the local UVB amplitude. Therefore, for cosmological probe that is sensitive to the UVB amplitude and capable of detecting the large scale like Lyman-$α$ forest spectrum, the fluctuation due to the clustering of ionizing source…
Previous studies of the 2.2 < z< 2.7 HeII Lyman-alpha forest measured much larger ionizing background fluctuations than are anticipated theoretically. We re-analyze recent Hubble Space Telescope data from the two HeII sightlines that have been used to make these measurements, HE2347-4342 and HS1700+6416, and find that the vast majority of the absorption is actually consistent with a single HeII photoionization rate. We show that the data constrains the RMS fractional fluctuation level smoothed at 1 Mpc to be < 2 and discuss why other studies had found larger fluctuations. Our measurement is co…
The larger-than-expected scatter in the opacity of the Ly$α$ forest suggests that the metagalactic ionizing background is strongly fluctuating at $z > 5.5$. Models for ionizing background fluctuations predict a strong positive bias on large scales, so the environments of massive $>10^{12}\,{\rm M}_\odot$ dark matter halos, e.g. $z\sim6$ quasar hosts, would be ideal laboratories to constrain the sources of ionizing photons. While the quasars themselves should overwhelm any plausible ionizing photon contribution from neighboring galaxies, proximate damped Ly$α$ absorbers (DLAs) have recently bee…
Recent observations suggest that helium became fully ionized around redshift z ~ 3. The HeII optical depth derived from the Lyman-alpha forest decreases substantially from this period to z ~ 2; moreover, it fluctuates strongly near z ~ 3 and then evolves smoothly at lower redshifts. From these opacities, we compute, using a semi-analytic model, the evolution of the mean photoionization rate and the attenuation length for helium over the redshift range 2.0 < z < 3.2. This model includes an inhomogeneous metagalactic radiation background, which is expected during and after helium reionization. W…
We investigate the possible influence of fluctuations in the metagalactic photoionizing ultra-violet background (UVBG) on the clustering of Ly$α$-emitting galaxies through the modulation of the ionization level of the gas surrounding the systems. At redshifts $z > 5$, even when assuming the reionization of the intergalactic medium has completed, the fluctuations are sufficiently large that they may non-negligibly enhance, and possibly even dominate, the angular correlation function on scales up to a few hundred arcsecs. Whilst a comparison with observations at $z \sim 5.7$ is statistically con…
Recent measurements of the ionizing photon mean free path ($λ_{912}^{\rm mfp}$) at $5 < z < 6$ suggest that the IGM was rapidly evolving at those times. We use radiative transfer simulations to explore the implications for reionization, with a focus on the short value of $λ_{912}^{\rm mfp} = 3.57^{+3.09}_{-2.14}$ cMpc/$h$ at $z=6$. We introduce a model for sub-resolution ionizing photon sinks based on radiative hydrodynamics simulations of small-scale IGM clumping. We argue that the rapid evolution in $λ_{912}^{\rm mfp}$ at $z=5-6$, together with constraints on the metagalactic ionizing backgr…
We present improved synthesis models of the evolving spectrum of the UV/X-ray diffuse background, updating and extending our previous results. A "minimal cosmic reionization model" is presented in which the galaxy UV emissivity traces recent determinations of the cosmic history of star formation, the luminosity-weighted escape fraction of hydrogen-ionizing radiation increases rapidly with redshift, from 1% at z=3 to 50% at z=8.5, the clumping factor of the intergalactic medium is C=3, and Population III stars make a negligible contribution to the metagalactic flux. The model provides a good fi…
Cosmological simulations of reionization often treat radiative transfer by solving for the monopole and dipoles of the intensity field and by making ansatz for the quadrupole moments to close the system of equations. We investigate the accuracy of the most common closure methods, i.e. Eddington tensor choices. We argue that these algorithms are most likely to err after reionization and study quasi-analytic test problems mimicking these situations: large-scale post-reionization ionizing background fluctuations and radiative transfer in a predominantly ionized medium with discrete absorbers. We …
Using Voigt-profile-fitting procedures on Keck HIRES spectra of nine QSOs we identify 1099 CIV absorber components clumped in 201 systems outside the Lyman forest over 1.6 < z < 4.4. With associated SiIV, CII, SiII and NV where available we investigate bulk statistical and ionization properties of the components and systems and find no significant change in redshift for CIV and SiIV while CII, SiII and NV change substantially. The CIV components exhibit strong clustering but no clustering is detected for systems on scales from 150 km/s out to 50000 km/s. We conclude the clustering is due entir…
We investigate the effects of AGN heating and the ultraviolet background on the low-redshift Lyman-$α$ forest column density distribution (CDD) using the Illustris simulation. We show that Illustris reproduces observations at $z =0.1$ in the column density range $10^{12.5} - 10^{13.5}$cm$^{-2}$, relevant for the "photon underproduction crisis." We attribute this to the inclusion of AGN feedback, which changes the gas distribution so as to mimic the effect of extra photons, as well as the use of the Faucher-Giguère ultraviolet background, which is more ionizing at $z=0.1$ than the Haardt & Mada…
The intrinsic escape fraction of ionizing Lyman continuum photons ($f_{esc}$) is crucial to understand whether galaxies are capable of reionizing the neutral hydrogen in the early universe at z>6. Unfortunately, it is not possible to access $f_{esc}$ at z>4 with direct observations and the handful of measurements from low redshift galaxies consistently find $f_{esc}$ < 10%, while at least $f_{esc}$ ~ 10% is necessary for galaxies dominate reionization. Here, we present the first empirical prediction of $f_{esc}$ at z>6 by combining the (sparsely populated) relation between [OIII]/[OII] and $f_…
We present improved synthesis models of the evolving spectrum of the UV/X-ray diffuse background, updating and extending our previous results. Five new main components are added to our radiative transfer code CUBA: (1) the sawtooth modulation of the background intensity from resonant line absorption in the Lyman series of cosmic hydrogen and helium; (2) the X-ray emission from obscured and unobscured quasars; (3) a piecewise parameterization of the distribution in redshift and column density of intergalactic absorbers that fits recent measurements of the mean free path of 1 ryd photons; (4) an…
We use a sample of 1669 QSOs ($r<20.15$, $3.6<z<4.0$) from the BOSS survey to study the intrinsic shape of their continuum and the Lyman continuum photon escape fraction (f$_{esc}$), estimated as the ratio between the observed flux and the expected intrinsic flux (corrected for the intergalactic medium absorption) in the wavelength range 865-885 Å rest-frame. Modelling the intrinsic QSO continuum shape with a power-law, $F_λ\proptoλ^{-γ}$, we find a median $γ=1.30$ (with a dispersion of $0.38$, no dependence on the redshift and a mild intrinsic luminosity dependence) and a mean f$_{esc}=0.75$ …
