We present a new method for estimating the H2 cooling rate in the optically thick regime in simulations of primordial star formation. Our new approach is based on the TreeCol algorithm, which projects matter distributions onto a spherical grid to create maps of column densities for each fluid element in the computational domain. We have improved this algorithm by using the relative gas velocities, to weight the individual matter contributions with the relative spectral line overlaps, in order to properly account for the Doppler effect. We compare our new method to the widely used Sobolev approximation, which yields an estimate for the column density based on the local velocity gradient and the thermal velocity. This approach generally underestimates the photon escape probability, because it neglects the density gradient and the actual shape of the cloud. We present a correction factor for the true line overlap in the Sobolev approximation and a new method based on local quantities, which fits the exact results reasonably well during the collapse of the cloud, with the error in the cooling rates always being less than 10%. Analytical fitting formulae fail at determining the photon escape probability after formation of the first protostar (error of 40%) because they are based on the assumption of spherical symmetry and therefore break down once a protostellar accretion disc has formed. Our method yields lower temperatures and hence promotes fragmentation for densities above 10^{10}/ccm at a distance of 200AU from the first protostar. Since the overall accretion rates are hardly affected by the cooling implementation, we expect Pop III stars to have lower masses in our simulations, compared to the results of previous simulations that used the Sobolev approximation.
We present and discuss the BVRI photometric evolution of Nova Del 2013 from the time of discovery, which occurred a few days before maximum brightness, to day +77, when the optically thick phase was over.
We present the results of our studies of the aperiodic optical flux variability for SS Cyg, an accreting binary systemwith a white dwarf. The main set of observational data presented here was obtained with the ANDOR/iXon DU-888 photometer mounted on the RTT-150 telescope, which allowed a record(for CCD photometers) time resolution up to 8 ms to be achieved. The power spectra of the source's flux variability have revealed that the aperiodic variability contains information about the inner boundary of the optically thick flow in the binary system. We show that the inner boundary of the optically…
The single-degenerate channel is widely accepted as the progenitors of type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia). Following the work of Meng, Chen and Han (2009), we reproduced the birth rate and age of supernovae like SN 2006X by the single-degenerate model (WD + MS) with an optically thick wind, which may imply that the progenitor of SN 2006X is a WD + MS system.
We revisit the occurrence condition of optically thick winds reported by Kato (1985) and Kato and Hachisu (1989) who examined mathematically nova envelope solutions with an old opacity and found that optically thick winds are accelerated only in massive white dwarfs (WDs) of >~ 0.9 Mo. With the OPAL opacity we find that the optically thick wind occurs for >~ 0.6 Mo WDs and that the occurrence of winds depends not only on the WD mass but also on the ignition mass. When the ignition mass is larger than a critical value, winds are suppressed by a density-inversion layer. Such a static solution ca…
I will explain why most novae show a sharp optical peak in the light curve, whereas a small number of novae, such as PU Vul, shows a long-lasted flat optical maximum. Re-examination of occurrence condition of optically thick winds clarifies that hydrostatic evolutions, in which optically thick winds are suppressed, are realized during nova outbursts on low mass white dwarfs (WDs) (less than about 0.7 Mo). In such a case, a nova outburst evolves very slowly, because of no strong mass-ejection, and stays at low temperature stage a long time, which results in a long-lasted flat optical peak. This…
The evidence for the presence of optically thick winds, produced by classical novae after optical maximum, has been challenged in recent papers. In addition, signs of orbital phase dependent photometric variations, sometimes seen quite early in the development of nova outbursts, are hard to interpret in the framework of optically thick envelopes and especially winds. A general discussion for belief in the presence of optically thick winds with increasing ejection velocities during the early stages of novae after their explosion, must be given. This has to be done in order to clarify ideas abou…
Aims: We present an analysis of simultaneously observed CoRoT and Spitzer lightcurves for $4$ systems in the stellar forming region NGC 2264: Mon-660, Mon-811, Mon-1140 and Mon-1308. These objects share in common a high resemblance between the optical and infrared lightcurves, such that the mechanism responsible to produce them is the same. The aim of this paper is to explain both lightcurves simultaneously with only one mechanism. Methods: We have modeled the infrared emission as coming from a warp composed of an optically thick wall and an optically thick asymmetric disk beyond this location…
We calculate the properties of 135 stellar supernovae using data from the Open Supernova Catalog. We generate temperatures, radii, luminosities, and expansion velocities using a spherically symmetric optically thick fireball model. These modeled parameters reveal trends that are common across different types of supernovae. We have identified distinct phases that appear across Type Ia, II, II P, and IIb supernovae. We note that there is a long period of reasonable continuous growth (Phase 1), giving credence to our simple model of an optically thick fireball. The modeled radius reaches a maximu…
We investigate the increase of the DEM (differential emission measure) towards the chromosphere due to small and cool magnetic loops (height $\lesssim8$~Mm, $T\lesssim10^5$~K). In a previous paper we analysed the conditions of existence and stability of these loops through hydrodynamic simulations, focusing on their dependence on the details of the optically thin radiative loss function used. In this paper, we extend those hydrodynamic simulations to verify if this class of loops exists and it is stable when using an optically thick radiative loss function. We study two cases: constant backgro…
ALMA surveys have suggested that the dust in Class II disks may not be enough to explain the averaged solid mass in exoplanets, under the assumption that the mm disk continuum emission is optically thin. This optically thin assumption seems to be supported by recent DSHARP observations where the measured optical depths of spatially resolved disks are mostly less than one. However, we point out that dust scattering can considerably reduce the emission from an optically thick region. If that scattering is ignored, the optical depth will be considerably underestimated. An optically thick disk wit…
Accurate disk mass measurements are necessary to constrain disk evolution and the timescale of planet formation, but such measurements are difficult to make and are very dependent on assumptions. Here we look at the assumption that the disk is optically thin at radio wavelengths and the effect of this assumption on measurements of disk dust mass. We model the optical to radio spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of 41 protoplanetary disks located in the young (~1-3 Myr old) Lupus star-forming region, including 0.89 mm, 1.33 mm, and 3 mm flux densities when available. We measure disk dust masse…
We construct helium (He) star models with optically thick winds and compare them with the properties of Galactic Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars. Hydrostatic He-core solutions are connected smoothly to trans-sonic wind solutions that satisfy the regularity conditions at the sonic point. Velocity structures in the supersonic parts are assumed by a simple beta-type law. By constructing a center-to-surface structure, a mass-loss rate can be obtained as an eigenvalue of the equations. Sonic points appear at temperatures ~ 1.8e5 - 2.8e5 K below the Fe-group opacity peak, where the radiation force becomes com…
Observations of atomic or molecular lines can provide important information about the physical state of star forming regions. In order to investigate the line profiles from dynamical collapsing massive star forming regions (MSFRs), we model the emission from hydrodynamic simulations of a collapsing cloud in the absence of outflows. By performing radiative transfer calculations, we compute the optically thick HCO+ and optically thin N2H+ line profiles from two collapsing regions at different epochs. Due to large-scale collapse, the MSFRs have large velocity gradients, reaching up to 20 km/s/pc …
Recent observation of some luminous transient sources with low color temperatures suggests that the emission is dominated by optically thick winds driven by super-Eddington accretion. We present a general analytical theory of the dynamics of radiation pressure-driven, optically thick winds. Unlike the classical adiabatic stellar wind solution whose dynamics are solely determined by the sonic radius, here the loss of the radiation pressure due to photon diffusion also plays an important role. We identify two high mass loss rate regimes ($\dot{M} > L_{\rm Edd\,}/c^2$). In the large total luminos…
Observations are revealing the ubiquity of filamentary structures in molecular clouds. As cores are often embedded in filaments, it is important to understand how line profiles from such systems differ from those of isolated cores. We perform radiative transfer calculations on a hydrodynamic simulation of a molecular cloud in order to model line emission from collapsing cores embedded in filaments. We model two optically thick lines, CS(2-1) and HCN(1-0), and one optically thin line, N2H+(1-0), from three embedded cores. In the hydrodynamic simulation, gas self-gravity, turbulence, and bulk fl…
(abridged) The strong winds of Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars are important for the mechanical and chemical feedback of the most massive stars and determine whether they end their lives as neutron stars or black holes. In this work we investigate theoretically the mass-loss properties of H-free WR stars of the nitrogen sequence (WN stars). We connect stellar structure models for He stars with wind models for optically-thick winds and assess how both types of models can simultaneously fulfill their respective sonic-point conditions. Fixing the outer wind law and terminal wind velocity, we obtain unique …
The detection by Rest et al. (2012) of light echoes from $η$ Carinae has provided important new observational constraints on the nature of its 1840's era giant eruption. Spectra of the echoes suggest a relatively cool spectral temperature of about 5500K, lower than the lower limit of about 7000K suggested in the optically thick wind outflow analysis of Davidson (1987). This has lead to a debate about the viability of this steady wind model relative to alternative, explosive scenarios. Here we present an updated analysis of the wind outflow model using newer low-temperature opacity tabulations …
Numerical simulations have shown that the often cited radiation pressure barrier to accretion onto massive stars can be circumvented, when the radiation field is highly anisotropic in the presence of a circumstellar accretion disk with high optical depth. Here, these studies of the so-called flashlight effect are expanded by including the opacity of the innermost dust-free but potentially optically thick gas regions around forming massive stars. In addition to frequency-dependent opacities for the dust grains, we use temperature- and density-dependent Planck- and Rosseland mean opacities for t…
The study aims to examine the spectral dynamics of the low-frequency, optically thick gyrosynchrotron microwave emission in solar flares to determine the characteristics of the emitting source. We present the high-resolution spectra of a set of microwave bursts observed by the Expanded Owens Valley Solar Array (EOVSA) during its commissioning phase in the $2.5-18$ GHz frequency range with $1$ second time resolution. Out of the 12 events analyzed in this study, nine bursts exhibit a direct decrease with time in the optically thick spectral index $α_l$, an indicator of source morphology. Particu…
Metal-poor single Wolf-Rayet stars: The interplay of optically thick winds and rotation
Universität Heidelberg（海德堡大学）；Università di Padova（帕多瓦大学）；Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie（马克斯·普朗克天文学研究所）；INFN - Padova（意大利国家核物理研究院帕多瓦分部）；Armagh Observatory and Planetarium（阿马天文台和天文馆）
We report the results of a study of the intermediate and high mass stars in the young, rich star-forming complex IC 1805, based on a combination of optical, near-infrared, and mid-infrared photometry, and classification spectra. These data provide the basis for characterizing the masses and ages for stars more massive than ~2 Msun and enable a study of the frequency and character of circumstellar disks associated with intermediate- and high-mass stars. Optically thick accretion disks among stars with masses 2 < M/Msun <4 are rare (~2% of members) and absent among more massive stars. A larger f…
Polarized continuum emission from aligned grains in disks around young stellar objects can be used to probe the magnetic field, radiation anisotropy, or drift between dust and gas, depending on whether the non-spherical grains are aligned magnetically, radiatively or mechanically. We show that it can also be used to probe another key disk property -- the temperature gradient -- along sight lines that are optically thick, independent of the grain alignment mechanism. We first illustrate the technique analytically using a simple 1D slab model, which yields an approximate formula that relates the…
Mass loss through stellar winds plays a dominant role in the evolution of massive stars. In particular the mass-loss rates of very massive stars (VMSs, $> 100\,M_{\odot}$) are highly uncertain. Such stars display Wolf-Rayet spectral morphologies (WNh) whilst on the main-sequence. Metal-poor VMSs are progenitors of gamma-ray bursts and pair instability supernovae. In this study we extended the widely used stellar wind theory by Castor, Abbott & Klein from the optically thin (O star) to the optically thick main-sequence (WNh) wind regime. In particular we modify the mass-loss rate formula in a w…
V1309 Sco was proposed to be a stellar merger and a common envelope transient based on the pre-outburst light curve of a contact eclipsing binary with a rapidly decaying orbital period. Using published data, I show that the period decay timescale P/Pdot of V1309 Sco decreased from ~1000 to ~170 years in less than about 6 years, which implies a very high value of second period derivative. I argue that V1309 Sco experienced an onset of dynamical mass loss through the outer Lagrange point, which eventually obscured the binary. The photosphere of the resulting continuous optically-thick outflow ex…
Our goal is to study the physical properties of the circumstellar environment of young stellar objetcs (YSOs). In particular, the determination of the scattering mechanism can help to constrain the optical depth of the disk and/or envelope in the near infrared. We used the IAGPOL imaging polarimeter along with the CamIV infrared camera at the LNA observatory to obtain near infrared polarimetry measurements at the H band of a sample of optically visible YSOs, namely, eleven T Tauri stars and eight Herbig Ae/Be stars. An independent determination of the disk (or jet) orientation was obtained for…
Studies of pre-transitional disks, with a gap region between the inner infrared-emitting region and the outer disk, are important to improving our understanding of disk evolution and planet formation. Previous infrared interferometric observations have shown hints of a gap region in the protoplanetary disk around the Herbig Ae star HD~144432. We study the dust distribution around this star with two-dimensional radiative transfer modeling. We compare the model predictions obtained via the Monte-Carlo radiative transfer code RADMC-3D with infrared interferometric observations and the {\SED} of H…
To interpret observations of astrophysical disks it is essential to understand the formation process of the emitted light. If the disk is optically thick, scattering dominated and permeated by a Keplerian velocity field, Non-Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium radiative transfer modeling must be done to compute the emergent spectrum from a given disk model. We investigate Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium polarized line formation in different simple disk models and aim to demonstrate the importance of both radiative transfer effects and scattering as well as the effects of velocity fields. We se…
WD J005311 is a newly identified white dwarf (WD) in a mid-infrared nebula. The spectroscopic observation indicates the existence of a neon-enriched carbon/oxygen wind with a terminal velocity of $v_{\infty,\rm obs}\sim 16,000\,\rm km\,s^{-1}$ and a mass loss rate of $\dot M_{\rm obs}\sim 3.5\times 10^{-6}\,M_\odot$ yr$^{-1}$. Here we consistently explain the properties of WD J005311 using a newly constructed wind solution, where the optically thick outflow is launched from the carbon burning shell on an oxygen-neon core and accelerated by the rotating magnetic field to become supersonic and u…
Radiative transfer describes the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through an interacting medium. This process is often simulated by the use of the Monte Carlo method, which involves the probabilistic determination and tracking of simulated photon packages. In the regime of high optical depths, this approach encounters difficulties since a proper representation of the various physical processes can only be achieved by considering high numbers of simulated photon packages. As a consequence, the demand for computation time rises accordingly and thus practically puts a limit on the optical…
Recent observations suggest our understanding of mass loss in classical novae is incomplete, motivating a new theoretical examination of the physical processes responsible for nova mass ejection. In this paper, we perform hydrodynamical simulations of classical nova outflows using the stellar evolution code MESA. We find that, when the binary companion is neglected, white dwarfs with masses >= 0.8 Msol successfully launch radiation-pressure-driven optically thick winds that carry away most of the envelope. However, for most of the mass loss phase, these winds are accelerated at radii beyond th…
We present new L-band spectra of 13 outbursting Be stars obtained with ISAAC at the ESO Paranal observatory. These stars can be classified in three groups depending on the presence/absence of emission lines and the strength of Br$α$ and Pf$γ$ emission lines relative to those of Humphreys lines from transitions 6--14 to the end of the series. These groups are representative of circumstellar envelopes with different optical depths. For the group showing Br$α$ and Pf$γ$ lines stronger than Humphreys lines, the Humphreys decrement roughly follow the Menzel case-B for optically thin conditions. For…
Wolf-Rayet star's winds can be so dense and so optically thick that the photosphere appears in the highly supersonic part of the outflow, veiling the underlying subsonic part of the star, and leaving the initial acceleration of the wind inaccessible to observations. We investigate the conditions and the structure of the subsonic part of the outflow of Galactic WR stars, in particular of the WNE subclass; our focus is on the conditions at the sonic point. We compute 1D hydrodynamic stellar structure models for massive helium stars adopting outer boundaries at the sonic point. We find that the o…
Two types of nova evolutions can be realized in low mass white dwarfs of ~0.5-0.7 M_sun, i.e., an evolution with optically thick winds like in usual classical novae, or an another type of evolution without them like in the symbiotic nova PU Vul. The latter type is characterized by spectra of no indication of strong winds as well as a long-lasted flat optical peak in its light curve. We propose a transition from no-optically-thick-wind evolution to usual evolution with optically thick winds as a new outburst model for slow novae that show a relatively long-lasted multipeak phase followed by a w…
We analytically derive the expressions for the structure of the inner region of protoplanetary disks based on the results from the recent hydrodynamical simulations. The inner part of a disk can be divided into four regions: dust-free region with gas temperature in the optically thin limit, optically thin dust halo, optically thick condensation front and the classical optically thick region in order from the inside. We derive the dust-to-gas mass ratio profile in the dust halo using the fact that partial dust condensation regulates the temperature to the dust evaporation temperature. Beyond th…
In the optically thin regime, the intensity ratio of the two Si IV resonance lines (1394 and 1403 Å ) are theoretically the same as the ratio of their oscillator strengths, which is exactly 2. Here, we study the ratio of the integrated intensity of the Si IV lines ($R=\int I_{1394}(λ)\mathrm{d}λ/\int I_{1403}(λ)\mathrm{d}λ$) and the ratio of intensity at each wavelength point ($r(Δλ)=I_{1394}(Δλ)/I_{1403}(Δλ)$) in two solar flares observed by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph. We find that at flare ribbons, the ratio $R$ ranges from 1.8 to 2.3 and would generally decrease when the ribb…
Here we compute detailed model spectra of recently published optically thick one-dimensional radial baundary layer (BL) models in cataclysmic variables and compare them with observed soft X-ray/extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectra of dwarf novae in outburst. Every considered BL model is divided into a number of rings, and for each ring, a structure model along the vertical direction is computed using the stellar-atmosphere method. The ring spectra are then combined into a BL spectrum taking Doppler broadening and limb darkening into account. Two sets of model BL spectra are computed, the first of…
Context. Evolution of massive stars is affected by a significant loss of mass either via (nearly) spherically symmetric stellar winds or by aspherical mass-loss mechanisms, namely the outflowing equatorial disks. However, the scenario that leads to the formation of a disk or rings of gas and dust around massive stars is still under debate. Aims. We study the hydrodynamic and thermal structure of optically thick, dense parts of outflowing circumstellar disks that may be formed around various types of critically rotating massive stars, for example, Be stars, B[e] supergiant (sgB[e]) stars or Pop…
Radiation transport plays important roles in stellar atmospheres, but the effects of turbulence are being obscured by other effects such as stratification. Using radiative hydrodynamic simulations of forced turbulence, we determine the decay rates of sinusoidal large-scale temperature perturbations of different wavenumbers in the optically thick and thin regimes. Increasing the wavenumber increases the rate of decay in both regimes, but this effect is much weaker than for the usual turbulent diffusion of passive scalars, where the increase is quadratic for small wavenumbers. The turbulent deca…
In the article, new asymptotic approximation of the $n$th order is obtained and proposed to be used in calculations of radiation propagation without scattering in optically thick media; the asymptotic approximation is much simpler and more precise than the known diffusion approximation. The rigorous derivation of the diffusion approximation equation and the equation of the radiation heat conduction approximation is obtained from the constructed asymptotic solution of the kinetic equation of radiation propagation in optically thick media. It is shown, that for optically thick media the asymptot…
