We study the abundance of satellites akin to the brightest, classical dwarf spheroidals around galaxies similar in magnitude and isolation to the Milky Way and M31 in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. From a combination of photometric and spectroscopic redshifts, we bound the mean and the intrinsic scatter in the number of satellites down to ten magnitudes fainter than the Milky Way. Restricting to magnitudes brighter than Sagittarius, we show that the Milky Way is not a significant statistical outlier in its population of classical dwarf spheroidals. At fainter magnitudes, we find an upper limit of 13 on the mean number of satellites brighter than the Fornax dwarf spheroidal. Methods to improve these limits that utilize full photometric redshift distributions hold promise, but are currently limited by incompleteness at the very lowest redshifts. Theoretical models are left to explain why the majority of dark matter subhalos that orbit Milky Way-like galaxies are inefficient at making galaxies at the luminosity scale of the brightest dwarf spheroidals, or why these subhalos predicted by Lambda-CDM do not exist.
Luminous Satellites versus Dark Subhaloes: Clustering in the Milky Way
观测到的银河系卫星星系群为小尺度上的星系形成理论提供了一个独特的试验场。我们的新方法是调查已知的银河系卫星星系的集群和量化的数量的子结构内的分布使用两点关联函数统计在三个空间:配置空间,视线速度空间,和四维相空间。这些结果进行了比较的三套subhaloes在通过Lactea II冷暗物质模拟定义为代表发光的矮星。我们没有发现任何证据在一个显着性水平以上的2西格玛的子结构内的银河系卫星星系的分布在任何三个空间。在四维相空间中,在所有三个空间和更广泛的尺度范围内,“发光”的次晕集合比银河系卫星更强烈地聚集在一起。每个“发光”的subhalo集聚类的结果,其视线内的速度空间分布的子结构在大于3西格玛的意义,而银河系的卫星星系是随机分布在视线的速度空间。虽然我们的比较是只有一个冷暗物质模拟,银河系卫星星系和所有聚类方法的Via Lactea II subhalo集之间的不一致性表明冷暗物质理论和观测到的银河系卫星之间存在潜在的新的“小尺度”紧张关系。未来的工作将通过研究额外的模拟来获得观测到的银河系卫星和冷暗物质理论之间更可靠的比较。
The recent advent of deep observational surveys of local Milky Way `analogues' and their satellite populations allows us to place the Milky Way in a broader cosmological context and to test models of galaxy formation on small scales. In the present study, we use the LCDM-based ARTEMIS suite of cosmological hydrodynamical simulations containing 45 Milky Way analogue host haloes to make comparisons to the observed satellite luminosity functions, radial distribution functions, and abundance scaling relations from the recent Local Volume and SAGA observational surveys, in addition to the Milky Way…
The "plane of satellites problem" describes the arrangement of the Milky Way's 11 brightest satellite galaxies in a remarkably thin plane, possibly supported by rotation. This is in apparent contradiction to the standard cosmological model, wherein the Galaxy is surrounded by a dispersion-supported dark matter halo. Here, we show that the reported exceptional anisotropy of the satellite system is strongly contingent on a lopsided radial distribution, which earlier simulations have failed to reproduce, combined with the close but fleeting conjunction of the two most distant satellites, Leo I an…
The ages, metallicities, alpha-elements and integrals of motion of globular clusters (GCs) accreted by the Milky Way from disrupted satellites remain largely unchanged over time. Here we have used these conserved properties in combination to assign 76 GCs to 5 progenitor satellite galaxies -- one of which we dub the Koala dwarf galaxy. We fit a leaky-box chemical enrichment model to the age-metallicity distribution of GCs, deriving the effective yield and the formation epoch of each satellite. Based on scaling relations of GC counts we estimate the original halo mass, stellar mass and mean met…
In order to find the possible progenitors of Milky Way globular clusters, we perform orbit integrations to track the orbits of 170 Galactic globular clusters and the eleven classical Milky Way satellite galaxies backwards in time for 11 Gyr in a Milky-Way-plus-satellites potential including the response of the MW to the infall of the Large Magellanic Cloud and the effect of dynamical friction on the satellites. To evaluate possible past associations, we devise a globular-cluster--satellite binding criterion based on the satellite's tidal radius and escape velocity and we test it on globular cl…
We report the results of a systematic search for ultra-faint Milky Way satellite galaxies using data from the Dark Energy Survey (DES) and Pan-STARRS1 (PS1). Together, DES and PS1 provide multi-band photometry in optical/near-infrared wavelengths over ~80% of the sky. Our search for satellite galaxies targets ~25,000 deg$^2$ of the high-Galactic-latitude sky reaching a 10$σ$ point-source depth of $\gtrsim$ 22.5 mag in the $g$ and $r$ bands. While satellite galaxy searches have been performed independently on DES and PS1 before, this is the first time that a self-consistent search is performed …
The inference of the Milky Way halo mass requires modelling the phase space structure of dynamical tracers, with different tracers following different models and having different levels of sensitivity to the halo mass. For steady-state models, phase correlations among tracer particles lead to an irreducible stochastic bias. This bias is small for satellite galaxies and dark matter particles, but as large as a factor of 2 for halo stars. This is consistent with the picture that satellite galaxies closely trace the underlying phase space distribution of dark matter particles, while halo stars ar…
We analyse the orbital kinematics of the Milky Way (MW) satellite system utilizing the latest systemic proper motions for 38 satellites based on data from Gaia Data Release 2. Combining these data with distance and line-of-sight velocity measurements from the literature, we use a likelihood method to model the velocity anisotropy, $β$, as a function of Galactocentric distance and compare the MW satellite system with those of simulated MW-mass haloes from the APOSTLE and Auriga simulation suites. The anisotropy profile for the MW satellite system increases from $β\sim -2$ at $r\sim20$ kpc to $β…
We develop a comprehensive and flexible model for the connection between satellite galaxies and dark matter subhalos in dark matter-only zoom-in simulations of Milky Way (MW)--mass host halos. We systematically identify the physical and numerical uncertainties in the galaxy--halo connection and simulations underlying our method, including (i) the influence of host halo properties; (ii) the relationship between satellite luminosities and subhalo properties, including the effects of reionization; (iii) the relationship between satellite and subhalo locations; (iv) the relationship between satell…
The concordance $Λ$CDM cosmology predicts tens of satellite galaxies distributed in the inner region ($<40\ \lkpc$) of the Milky Way (MW), yet at most $12$ were discovered at present day, including 3 discovered very recently by Dark Energy Survey (DES) and 5 from other surveys (e.g. PanSTARRS, MagLiteS). We use $5$ ultra-high resolution simulations of MW sized dark matter haloes from the $\aqua$ project, combined with $\galf$ semi-analytical galaxy formation model, to investigate properties of the model satellite galaxy population inside $40\ \lkpc$ of MW sized haloes. On average, in each halo…
We investigate the formation of the satellite galaxy population of a Milky Way-mass halo in a very highly resolved magneto-hydrodynamic cosmological zoom-in simulation (baryonic mass resolution $m_b =$ 800 $\rm M_{\odot}$). We show that the properties of the central star-forming galaxy, such as the radial stellar surface density profile and star formation history, are: i) robust to stochastic variations associated with the so-called ``Butterfly Effect''; and ii) well converged over 3.5 orders of magnitude in mass resolution. We find that there are approximately five times as many satellite gal…
Statistics of Satellite Galaxies Around Milky Way-Like Hosts
计算了标准宇宙学模型中类银河晕具有观测到的麦哲伦云数的概率。在LCDM模型中的MC的数量的统计是在一个大样本的SDSS星系的观测符合得很好。在星系r-波段光度和晕内速度v_max之间存在小散射关系的子晕丰度匹配假设下,我们与Liu等人(2010)使用SDSS DR 7数据进行的类似测量进行了详细比较。模型和观测数据给出了非常相似的概率,有零个,一个和两个MC样卫星。在这两种情况下,银河系光度宿主只有\sim 10%的机会拥有两颗类似于麦哲伦云的卫星。此外,我们提出了一个预测的概率为一个主机星系Nsats卫星星系作为一个函数的大小的主机和卫星。这种概率及其与宿主属性的比例与质量选择物体的概率有很大不同,因为质量-光度关系中的散射以及恒星形成效率随晕质量的变化。
The Milky Way's (MW) satellite population is a powerful probe of warm dark matter (WDM) models as the abundance of small substructures is very sensitive to the properties of the WDM particle. However, only a partial census of the MW's complement of satellite galaxies exists because surveys of the MW's close environs are incomplete both in depth and in sky coverage. We present a new Bayesian analysis that combines the sample of satellites recently discovered by the Dark Energy Survey (DES) with those found in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) to estimate the total satellite galaxy luminosity …
The vast majority of low-mass satellite galaxies around the Milky Way and M31 appear virtually devoid of cool gas and show no signs of recent or ongoing star formation. Cosmological simulations demonstrate that such quenching is expected and is due to the harsh environmental conditions that satellites face when joining the Local Group (LG). However, recent observations of Milky Way analogues in the SAGA survey present a very different picture, showing the majority of observed satellites to be actively forming stars, calling into question the realism of current simulations and the typicality of…
We study the correlation of orbital poles of the 11 classical satellite galaxies of the Milky Way, comparing results from previous proper motions with the independent data by Gaia DR2. Previous results on the degree of correlation and its significance are confirmed by the new data. A majority of the satellites co-orbit along the Vast Polar Structure, the plane (or disk) of satellite galaxies defined by their positions. The orbital planes of eight satellites align to $<20^\circ$ with a common direction, seven even orbit in the same sense. Most also share similar specific angular momenta, though…
We estimate the Milky Way (MW) halo properties using satellite kinematic data including the latest measurements from Gaia DR2. With a simulation-based 6D phase-space distribution function (DF) of satellite kinematics, we can infer halo properties efficiently and without bias, and handle the selection function and measurement errors rigorously in the Bayesian framework. Applying our DF from the EAGLE simulation to 28 satellites, we obtain an MW halo mass of $M=1.23_{-0.18}^{+0.21}\times 10^{12} M_\odot$ and a concentration of $c=9.4_{ -2.1}^{ +2.8}$ with the prior based on the $M$-$c$ relation.…
As the Milky Way and its satellite system become more entrenched in near field cosmology efforts, the need for an accurate mass estimate of the Milky Way's dark matter halo is increasingly critical. With the second and early third data releases of stellar proper motions from {\it Gaia}, several groups calculated full $6$D phase-space information for the population of Milky Way satellite galaxies. Utilizing these data in comparison to subhalo properties drawn from the Phat ELVIS simulations, we constrain the Milky Way dark matter halo mass to be $\sim 1-1.2\times10^{12}~\msun$. We find that the…
We introduce a novel abundance matching technique that produces a more accurate estimate of the pre-infall halo mass, $M_{200}$, for satellite galaxies. To achieve this, we abundance match with the mean star formation rate, averaged over the time when a galaxy was forming stars, $\langle {\rm SFR}\rangle$, instead of the stellar mass, $M_*$. Using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, the GAMA survey and the Bolshoi simulation, we obtain a statistical $\langle {\rm SFR}\rangle-{\rm M}_{200}$ relation in $Λ{\rm CDM}$. We then compare the pre-infall halo mass, $M^{\rm abund}_{200}$, derived fr…
We present the Stage II results from the ongoing Satellites Around Galactic Analogs (SAGA) Survey. Upon completion, the SAGA Survey will spectroscopically identify satellite galaxies brighter than $ M_{r,o} = -12.3 $ around 100 Milky Way (MW) analogs at $ z \sim 0.01 $. In Stage II, we have more than quadrupled the sample size of Stage I, delivering results from 127 satellites around 36 MW analogs with an improved target selection strategy and deep photometric imaging catalogs from the Dark Energy Survey and the Legacy Surveys. We have obtained 25,372 galaxy redshifts, peaking around $ z = 0.2…
Milky Way (MW) satellites reside within dark matter (DM) subhalos with a broad distribution of circular velocity profiles. This diversity is enhanced with the inclusion of ultra-faint satellites, which seemingly have very high DM densities, albeit with large systematic uncertainties. We argue that if confirmed, this large diversity in the MW satellite population poses a serious test for the structure formation theory with possible implications for the DM nature. For the Cold Dark Matter model, the diversity might be a signature of the combined effects of subhalo tidal disruption by the MW disk…
Any successful model of dark matter must explain the diversity of observed Milky Way (MW) satellite density profiles, from very dense ultrafaints to large, low density satellites such as Crater~II that appear to be larger their anticipated host dark matter haloes. We consider cold dark matter (CDM), warm dark matter (WDM, 3.3keV thermal relic power spectrum), and a self-interacting dark matter model (SIDM) that induces gravothermal collapse in low mass subhaloes. Predictions for these density profiles are complicated by the limitations of simulation resolution in the stripping of subhaloes by …
We perform a comprehensive study of Milky Way (MW) satellite galaxies to constrain the fundamental properties of dark matter (DM). This analysis fully incorporates inhomogeneities in the spatial distribution and detectability of MW satellites and marginalizes over uncertainties in the mapping between galaxies and DM halos, the properties of the MW system, and the disruption of subhalos by the MW disk. Our results are consistent with the cold, collisionless DM paradigm and yield the strongest cosmological constraints to date on particle models of warm, interacting, and fuzzy dark matter. At $95…