M87 and the Dynamics and Microphysics inside the Blazar Zone
Philip Hardee
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6 pages, 0 figures, Proceedings of the workshop "Fermi meets Jansky: AGN in Radio and Gamma Rays" held at the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomonie, Bonn, Germany, June 2010
The blazars provide a considerable opportunity to peer into the workings within a few tens of parsecs of the central engine in AGN. This considerable opportunity involves significant challenges as different macroscopic dynamical processes and microscopic physical processes operating at different locations can be responsible for the observed emission. In this proceedings article I review recent theoretical and numerical results relevant to dynamics inside the blazar zone, review the particle acceleration processes capable of producing the high energy particles required by the observed emission, discuss some of the progress made at the microphysical level, and consider what recent TeV and radio observations of M87 can tell us about the blazar zone.
The author is developing a numerical code with thousands of emission zones to simulate the time-dependent multi-waveband emission from blazars. The code is based on a model in which turbulent plasma flowing at a relativistic speed down a jet crosses a standing conical collimation shock that accelerates electrons to maximum energies in the 5-100 GeV range. This paper reports early results produced by the model. The simulated light curves and time profiles of the degree and position angle of polarization have a number of features in common with the observational data of blazars. Maps of the pola…
Blazars are a sub-category of radio-loud active galactic nuclei with relativistic jets pointing towards the observer. They exhibit non-thermal variable emission, which practically extends over the whole electromagnetic spectrum. Despite the plethora of multi-wavelength observations, the origin of the emission in blazar jets remains an open question. In this work, we construct a two-zone leptonic model: particles accelerate in a small region and lose energy through synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton Scattering. Consequently, the relativistic electrons escape to a larger area where the am…
A one-parameter two-zone leptonic model for the blazar sequence
INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera（意大利国家天体物理研究所 - 布里拉天文台）；Department of Physics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens（雅典国立卡波季斯特里安大学物理系）；NASA Goddard Space Flight Center（美国国家航空航天局戈达德太空飞行中心）
A high-energy muon neutrino event, IceCube-170922A, was recently discovered in both spatial and temporal coincidence with a gamma-ray flare of the blazar TXS 0506+056. It has been shown, with standard one-zone models, that neutrinos can be produced in the blazar jet via hadronic interactions, but with a flux which is mostly limited by the X-ray data. In this work, we explore the neutrino production from TXS 0506+056 by invoking two physically distinct emission zones in the jet, separated by the broad line region (BLR). Using the Doppler-boosted radiation of the BLR as the target photon field, …
We present a newly developed time-dependent three-dimensional multi-zone hadronic blazar emission model. By coupling a Fokker-Planck based lepto-hadronic particle evolution code 3DHad with a polarization-dependent radiation transfer code, 3DPol, we are able to study the time-dependent radiation and polarization signatures of a hadronic blazar model for the first time. Our current code is limited to parameter regimes in which the hadronic $γ$-ray output is dominated by proton synchrotron emission, neglecting pion production. Our results demonstrate that the time-dependent flux and polarization …
We study the expected variability patterns of blazars within the two-zone acceleration model putting special emphasis on flare shapes and spectral lags. We solve semi-analytically the kinetic equations which describe the particle evolution in the acceleration and radiation zone. We then perturb the solutions by introducing Lorentzian variations in its key parameters and examine the flaring behavior of the system. We apply the above to the X-ray observations of blazar 1ES 1218+304 which exhibited a hard lag behavior during a flaring episode and discuss possibilities of producing it within the c…
Recently reported coincidences between high-energy neutrino events and major blazar outbursts reinforce the relevance of lepto-hadronic emission models for blazars. We study the influence of physical parameters on the neutrino output modeling blazar spectral energy distributions self-consistently assuming a relativistically propagating acceleration zone surrounded by a larger cooling zone. We find that the gross features of the spectral energy distribution can readily be explained with the model. A rigorous test requires time-resolved measurements of blazar spectral energy distributions during…
In this work, we investigate the 2014-2015 neutrino flare associated with the blazar TXS 0506+056 and a recently discovered muon neutrino event IceCube-200107A in spatial coincidence with the blazar 4FGL J0955.1+3551, under the framework of a two-zone radiation model of blazars where an inner/outer blob close to/far from the supermassive black hole are invoked. An interesting feature that the two sources share in common is that no evidence of GeV gamma-ray activity is found during the neutrino detection period, probably implying a large opacity for GeV gamma rays in the neutrino production reg…
The high-energy-peaked blazar 1ES 1959+650 is a well-known and well studied nearby blazar that has undergone several episodes of multi-TeV flaring. In 2002 for the first time an orphan TeV flare was observed from this blazar. During a multiwavelength campaign between 29th April to 21st November 2016, MAGIC telescopes observed multi-TeV flarings during the nights of 13th, 14th June and 1st July 2016 when the position of the synchrotron peak was found to be above $10^{17}$ Hz. Also observed was that the second peak of the spectral energy distribution shifted towards higher energy, and exhibiting…
Mildly-relativistic shocks that are embedded in colliding magnetohydrodynamic flows are prime sites for relativistic particle acceleration and production of strongly variable, polarized multi-wavelength emission from relativistic jet sources such as blazars and gamma-ray bursts. The principal energization mechanisms at these shocks are diffusive shock acceleration and shock drift acceleration. In recent work, we had self-consistently coupled shock acceleration and radiation transfer simulations in blazar jets in a basic one-zone scenario. These one-zone models revealed that the observed spectr…
Context.Blazars, a sub-category of Active Galactic Nuclei, are characterized by their non-thermal variable emission. This emission extends over the whole electromagnetic spectrum and is a consequence of particle acceleration inside their relativistic jets. However, especially the relation of radio emission to that at higher frequencies remains an open question. Aims. Observations of blazar emission show that the location of radio might be very different from the one where the rest of the spectrum is produced and often requires separate modeling. We aim to produce both emissions within the cont…
Blazars radiate from relativistic plasma jets with bulk Lorentz factors Γ ~ 10, closely aligned along our line of sight. In a number of blazars of the Flat Spectrum Radio Quasar type such as 3C 454.3 and 3C 279 gamma-ray flares have recently been detected with very high luminosity and little or no counterparts in the optical and soft X-ray bands. They challenge the current one-zone leptonic models of emissions from within the broad line region. The latter envisage the optical/X-ray emissions to be produced as synchrotron radiation by the same population of highly relativistic electrons in the …
Polarization Dynamics of X-Ray Synchrotron Emission from a Multi-Zone Blazar Jet
Washington University in St Louis（圣路易斯华盛顿大学）；University of Maryland Baltimore County（马里兰大学巴尔的摩县分校）；NASA Goddard Space Flight Center（美国国家航空航天局戈达德太空飞行中心）
Particle acceleration signatures in the time-dependent one-zone synchrotron self-Compton model of blazar flares
LUX, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université（巴黎天文台，巴黎文理研究大学，法国国家科学研究中心，索邦大学）；Centre for Space Research, North-West University（西北大学空间研究中心）
The current generation of Cherenkov telescopes, together with Fermi-LAT, have greatly increased our knowledge of $γ$-ray blazars. Among them, the high-frequency-peaked BL Lacertae object (HBL) PKS1424+240 (z $\simeq$ 0.6) is the farthest persistent emitter of very-high-energy (VHE; E $\geq$ 100 GeV) $γ$-ray photons. Current emission models can satisfactorily reproduce typical blazar emission assuming that the dominant emission process is synchrotron-self-Compton (SSC) in HBLs; and external-inverse-Compton (EIC) in LBLs and FSRQs. Hadronic models are also able to correctly reproduce the $γ$-ray…
The author presents a model for variability of the flux and polarization of blazars in which turbulent plasma flowing at a relativistic speed down a jet crosses a standing conical shock. The shock compresses the plasma and accelerates electrons to energies up to gamma(max) > 1E4 times their rest-mass energy, with the value of gamma(max) determined by the direction of the magnetic field relative to the shock front. The turbulence is approximated in a computer code as many cells, each with a uniform magnetic field whose direction is selected randomly. The density of high-energy electrons in the …
We present the results of observations of blazar PKS 1510-089 with the Herschel Space Observatory PACS and SPIRE instruments, together with multiwavelength data from Fermi/LAT, Swift, SMARTS and SMA. The source was found in a quiet state, and its far-infrared spectrum is consistent with a power-law with a spectral index of alpha ~ 0.7. Our Herschel observations were preceded by two 'orphan' gamma-ray flares. The near-infrared data reveal the high-energy cut-off in the main synchrotron component, which cannot be associated with the main gamma-ray component in a one-zone leptonic model. This is …
Various attempts have been made in the literature at describing the origin and the physical mechanisms behind flaring events in blazars with radiative emission models, but detailed properties of multi-wavelength (MWL) light curves still remain difficult to reproduce. We have developed a versatile radiative code, based on a time-dependent treatment of particle acceleration, escape and radiative cooling, allowing us to test different scenarios to connect the continuous low-state emission self-consistently with that during flaring states. We consider flares as weak perturbations of the quiescent …
Using blazar light curves from the optical All-Sky Automated Survey for Supernovae (ASAS-SN) and the $γ$-ray \textit{Fermi}-LAT telescope, we performed the most extensive statistical correlation study between both bands, using a sample of 1,180 blazars. This is almost an order of magnitude larger than other recent studies. Blazars represent more than 98\% of the AGNs detected by \textit{Fermi}-LAT and are the brightest $γ$-ray sources in the extragalactic sky. They are essential for studying the physical properties of astrophysical jets from central black holes. However, their $γ$-ray flare me…
The recent associations of neutrinos with blazars require the efficient interaction of relativistic protons with ambient soft photon fields. However, along side the neutrinos gamma-ray photons are produced which interact with the same soft photon fields producing electron-positron pairs. The strength of this cascade has significant consequences on the photon spectrum in various energy bands and puts severe constraints on the pion and neutrino production. In this study, we discuss the influence of the external thermal photon fields (accretion disk, broad-line region, and dusty torus) on the pro…
The gamma-ray emission offers a powerful diagnostic tool to probe jets and their surroundings in flat spectrum radio quasars (FSRQ). In particular, sources emitting at high energies (>10 GeV) give us the strongest constraints. This motivates us to start a systematic study of flares with bright emission above 10 GeV, examining archival data of Fermi-LAT gamma-ray telescope. At the same time, we began to trigger Target of Opportunity observations to the Swift observatory at the occurrence of high-energy flares, obtaining a wide coverage of the spectral energy distributions for several FSRQs duri…
Aim : The nearby TeV blazar 1ES 1959+650 (z=0.047) was reported to be in flaring state during June - July 2016 by Fermi-LAT, FACT, MAGIC and VERITAS collaborations. We studied the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) in different states of the flare during MJD 57530 - 57589 using simultaneous multiwaveband data to understand the possible broadband emission scenario during the flare. Methods : The UV/optical and X-ray data from UVOT and XRT respectively on board Swift and high energy $γ$-ray data from Fermi-LAT are used to generate multiwaveband lightcurves as well as to obtain high flux states…
We present a new time-dependent leptonic code that we developed to model the varying multi-wavelength (MWL) emission during blazar flares. In our modeling, we assume that the blazar emission originates from a plasma blob located in the jet, and that relativistic electrons are injected into the blob and may undergo stochastic (Fermi II) or shock (Fermi I) acceleration. We numerically solve the kinetic equation for electron evolution in the blob, taking into account particle injection, escape, acceleration and radiative cooling. In order to calculate the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the…
H.E.S.S. detection and multi-wavelength study of the $z \sim$ 1 blazar PKS 0346$-$27
Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, DIAS Dunsink Observatory（都柏林高级研究所，DIAS邓辛克天文台）；Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik（马克斯·普朗克核物理研究所）；University of Namibia（纳米比亚大学）；Centre for Space Research, North-West University（西北大学空间研究中心）；Universität Potsdam（波茨坦大学）；Université Paris Cité（巴黎西岱大学）；Linnaeus University（林奈大学）；Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY（德国电子同步辐射中心）；Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin（柏林洪堡大学）；Universität Tübingen（蒂宾根大学）
The emission of the so-called extreme blazars challenges the particle acceleration models. The hardness of its spectrum, $<2$, demands extreme parameters using the standard one-zone SSC model in the high energy band. Some authors use both two-zone or hadronic/leptohadronic models to relax these extreme values. In this work, we present a leptohadronic two-zone model with external radiation fields to explain the broadband emission, where the contribution of two components forms the hard-spectrum in the $γ$-rays band. The first is produced by the photopion process, where accelerated protons in an…
Motivated by the observation of a $>290$ TeV muon neutrino by IceCube, coincident with a $\sim$6 month-long $γ$-ray flare of the blazar TXS 0506+056, and an archival search which revealed $13 \pm 5$ further, lower-energy neutrinos in the direction of the source in 2014-2015, we discuss the likely contribution of blazars to the diffuse high-energy neutrino intensity, the implications for neutrino emission from TXS 0506+056 based on multi-wavelength observations of the source, and a multi-zone model that allows for sufficient neutrino emission so as to reconcile the multi-wavelength cascade cons…
The blazar zone in quasars is commonly assumed to be located inside the broad-line region at some hundreds of Schwartzschild radii from the central black hole. Now, the simultaneous Fermi/LAT and MAGIC observations of a strong flare in the FSRQ PKS 1222+21 (4C 21.35, z=0.432) on 2010 June 17 challenge this picture. The spectrum can be described by a single power law with photon index 2.72+/-0.34 between 3 GeV and 400 GeV, and this is consistent with emission from a single component in the jet. The absence of a spectral cutoff constrains the gamma-ray emission region to lie outside of the broad…
One of the most important questions in blazar physics is the origin of broadband emission and fast-flux variation. In this work, we studied the broadband temporal and spectral properties of a TeV blazar 1ES 1727+502 and explore the one-zone synchrotron-self Compton (SSC) model to fit the broadband spectral energy distribution (SED). We collected the long-term (2014-2021) multiband data which includes both the low and high flux states of the source. The entire light curve is divided into three segments of different flux states and the best-fit parameters obtained by broadband SED modeling corre…
The multi-wavelength emission from a newly identified population of `extreme-TeV' blazars, with Compton peak frequencies around 1 TeV, is difficult to interpret with standard one-zone emission models. Large values of the minimum electron Lorentz factor and quite low magnetisation values seem to be required. We propose a scenario where protons and electrons are co-accelerated on internal or recollimation shocks inside the relativistic jet. In this situation, energy is transferred from the protons to the electrons in the shock transition layer, leading naturally to a high minimum Lorentz factor …
The matter content of extragalactic relativistic jets is still an unsolved issue. There are strong arguments against pure electron-positron pair jets, but pairs could outnumber the electrons associated with protons by a factor 10-20. This impacts on the estimate of the jet kinetic power, by reducing it by the same factor, and on the total energy delivered to leptons by the particle acceleration mechanism. Pairs cannot be created in the same jet-zone responsible for the high energy gamma-ray emission we see in blazars, because the reprocessing of the created pairs would overproduce the X-ray fl…
Detection of the IceCube-170922A neutrino coincident with the flaring blazar TXS 0506+056, the first and only 3-sigma high-energy neutrino source association to date, offers a potential breakthrough in our understanding of high-energy cosmic particles and blazar physics. We present a comprehensive analysis of TXS 0506+056 during its flaring state, using newly collected Swift, NuSTAR, and X-shooter data with Fermi observations and numerical models to constrain the blazar's particle acceleration processes and multimessenger (electromagnetic and high-energy neutrino) emissions. Accounting properl…
Radio emission in blazars -- the aligned subset of Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) -- is produced by synchrotron electrons moving relativistically in their jet's magnetic field. Under the assumption of some degree of uniformity of the field, the emission can be highly polarized -- linearly and circularly. In the radio regime, the observed variability is in most of the cases attributed to flaring events undergoing opacity evolution, i.e. transitions from optically thick to thin emission (or vice versa). These transistions have a specific signature in the polarization parameter space (angle and mag…
In this work we investigate the nature of multi-wavelength variability of blazars from a purely numerical approach. We use a time-dependent one-zone leptonic blazar emission model to simulate multi-wavelength variability by introducing stochastic parameter variations in the emission region. These stochastic parameter variations are generated by Monte Carlo methods and have a characteristic power law index of $α=-2$ in their power spectral densities. We include representative blazar test cases for a flat spectrum radio quasar and a high synchrotron peaked BL Lacertae object for which the high e…
A very bright and fast varying gamma-ray flare has been detected from the blazar 3C 279 on June 16, 2015. We have studied the broadband spectral energy distribution of the source during the flaring episode and in the low activity state using a simple one zone leptonic model. We find that an electron energy distribution described by a broken power law can be used to reproduce the broadband emissions during the high and low activity states. The flux measurements at radio, infrared and optical frequencies are reproduced by the synchrotron emission resulting from the relativistic electrons in a je…
Blazars are a subclass of active galactic nuclei (AGN) that have a relativistic jet with a small viewing angle towards the observer. Recent results based on hadronic scenarios have motivated an ongoing discussion of how a blazar can produce high energy neutrinos during a flaring state and which scenario can successfully describe the observed gamma-ray behaviour. Markarian 421 is one of the closest and brightest objects in the extragalactic gamma-ray sky and showed flaring activity over a 14-day period in March 2010. In this work, we describe the performed analysis of \textit{Fermi}-LAT data fr…
In the third catalog of active galactic nuclei detected by the $Fermi$ Large Area Telescope Clean (3LAC) sample, there are 402 blazars candidates of uncertain type (BCU). The proposed analysis will help to evaluate the potential optical classification flat spectrum radio quasars (FSRQs) versus BL Lacertae (BL Lacs) objects of BCUs, which can help to understand which is the most elusive class of blazar hidden in the Fermi sample. By studying the 3LAC sample, we found some critical values of $γ$-ray photon spectral index ($Γ_{\rm ph}$), variability index (VI) and radio flux (${\rm F_R}$) of the …
We observed 5 gamma-ray loud blazars at redshift greater than 2 with the X-Ray Telescope (XRT) and the UltraViolet and Optical Telescope (UVOT) onboard the Swift satellite, and the Gamma-Ray burst Optical Near-Infrared Detector (GROND) instrument. These observations were quasi simultaneous, usually within a few hours. For 4 of these blazars the near-IR to UV data show the presence of an accretion disc, and we could reliably estimate its accretion rate and black hole mass. One of them, PKS 1348+007, was found in an extraordinarily high IR-optical state, almost two orders of magnitude brighter t…
Blazar flares from plasma blobs crossing the broad-line region
Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie（巴黎西岱大学）；Centre for Space Research, North-West University（西北大学空间研究中心）；LUX, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS（巴黎天文台）
Minute-timescale TeV flares have been observed in several blazars. The fast flaring requires compact regions in the jet that boost their emission towards the observer at an extreme Doppler factor of delta>50. For TeV photons to avoid annihilation in the broad line region of PKS 1222+216, the flares must come from large (pc) scales challenging most models proposed to explain them. Here we elaborate on the magnetic reconnection minijet model for the blazar flaring, focusing on the inherently time-dependent aspects of the process of magnetic reconnection. I argue that, for the physical conditions…
Blazars are very broadband cosmic sources with spectra spanning over twenty orders of magnitude in frequency, down to the 100 MHz regime in the radio range, up to VHE at several tens of TeV. The modelling of their spectral energy distribution at high energies currently considers two main classes of models, leptonic and lepto-hadronic, which both succeed fairly well in describing the observed spectra for the two populations of blazars, namely BL Lac objects (BL Lacs) and flat spectrum radio quasars (FSRQs). However they are both confronted with difficulties, in particular to reproduce flaring p…
(abridged) We present a new time-dependent multi-zone radiative transfer code and its application to study the SSC emission of Mrk 421. The code couples Fokker-Planck and Monte Carlo methods, in a 2D geometry. For the first time all the light travel time effects (LCTE) are fully considered, along with a proper treatment of Compton cooling, which depends on them. We study a set of simple scenarios where the variability is produced by injection of relativistic electrons as a `shock front' crosses the emission region. We consider emission from two components, with the second one either being pre-…
We present the results of a multi-frequency, time-averaged analysis of blazars included in the Candidate Gamma-ray Blazar Survey catalog. Our sample consists of 324 $γ$-ray detected ($γ$-ray loud) and 191 non $γ$-ray detected ($γ$-ray quiet) blazars, and we consider all the data up to 2016 April 1. We find that both the $γ$-ray loud and the $γ$-ray quiet blazar populations occupy similar regions in the WISE color-color diagram, and in the radio and X-ray bands $γ$-ray loud sources are brighter. A simple one-zone synchrotron inverse-Compton emission model is applied to derive the physical prope…
Since its discovery in 1995, the high-energy peaked blazar 1ES 2344+514 has undergone several episodes of GeV-TeV flaring and has been observed in the multiwavelength by several other telescopes. The observed X-ray spectrum of 1996 and the flaring event of 2016 establish that 1ES 2344+514 has a temporary EHBL-like behavior. Such behavior has also been observed in several nearby high-energy peaked blazars. We use the photohadronic model to account for the GeV-TeV flaring observed events of 1995 and 2007. Also, a recently proposed two-zone photohadronic model, which is successful in explaining t…
We report on the variations of the physical parameters of the jet observed in the blazar Mrk 421, and discuss the origin of X-ray flares in the jet, based on the analysis of the several spectral energy distributions (SEDs). The SEDs are modeled using the one-zone synchrotron self-Compton (SSC) model and its parameters determined using a Markov chain Monte Carlo method. The lack of data at TeV energies means many of the parameters cannot be uniquely determined and are correlated. These are studied in detail. We found that the optimal solution can be uniquely determined only when we apply a cons…
We study the broad emission line blazars detected in the gamma-ray band by the Large Area Telescope onboard the Fermi satellite and with the optical spectrum studied by Shaw et al. (2012, 2013). The observed broad line strength provides a measure of the ionizing luminosity of the accretion disk, while the gamma-luminosity is a proxy for the bolometric non-thermal beamed jet emission. The resulting sample, composed by 217 blazars, is the best suited to study the connection between accretion and jet properties. We compare the broad emission line properties of these blazars with those of radio-qu…
The flat spectrum radio quasar PKS 1222+216 was detected in the very high energy gamma-ray band by MAGIC during a highly active gamma-ray phase following an alert by the LAT onboard Fermi. Its relatively hard spectrum without a cut off, together with the observed variability on timescale of ~10 min challenges standard emission models. If the emission originates in a portion of the relativistic jet located inside the BLR, severe absorption of gamma rays above few tens of GeV is expected due to the pair production process. These observations imply the existence of a very compact (R_b ~5 x 10^{14…
Jets in blazars are an excellent forum for studying acceleration at relativistic shocks using the highly-variable emission seen across the electromagnetic spectrum. Our recent work on combining multi-wavelength leptonic emission models with simulated thermal+non-thermal distributions from shock acceleration theory has resulted in new insights into plasma conditions in blazars. This has demonstrated the ability to infer the cyclotron frequency, the plasma density and thus also the Alfven speed, thereby determining the rapidity of particle energization. An important inference was that MHD turbul…
We extend our approach of modeling spectral energy distribution (SED) and lightcurves of blazars to include external Compton (EC) emission due to inverse Compton scattering of an external anisotropic target radiation field. We describe the time-dependent impact of such seed photon fields on the evolution of multifrequency emission and spectral variability of blazars using a multi-zone time-dependent leptonic jet model, with radiation feedback, in the internal shock model scenario. We calculate accurate EC-scattered high-energy spectra produced by relativistic electrons throughout the Thomson a…
It is widely accepted that strong and variable radiation detected over all accessible energy bands in a number of active galaxies arises from a relativistic, Doppler-boosted jet pointing close to our line of sight. The size of the emitting zone and the location of this region relative to the central supermassive black hole are, however, poorly known, with estimates ranging from light-hours to a light-year or more. Here we report the coincidence of a gamma-ray flare with a dramatic change of optical polarization angle. This provides evidence for co-spatiality of optical and gamma-ray emission r…
Blazar emission models are usually divided into two big families, leptonic and hadronic, according to the particles which are responsible for the gamma-ray component of their spectral energy distributions. Even though leptonic models have been successful in explaining the gamma-ray emission from most blazars, hadronic models still present an intriguing alternative. They have the unique advantage to link the emission of photons, neutrinos, and cosmic rays from the astrophysical source. We have developed a stationary one-zone lepto-hadronic code to model the emission from blazars in both leptoni…
