Fault tolerant architectures for superconducting qubits
David P. DiVincenzo
备注：
28 pages, 10 figures. For the Nobel Symposium on Qubits for Quantum Information, submitted to Physica Scripta. v. 2 Corrections and small changes to references
In this short review, I draw attention to new developments in the theory of fault tolerance in quantum computation that may give concrete direction to future work in the development of superconducting qubit systems. The basics of quantum error correction codes, which I will briefly review, have not significantly changed since their introduction fifteen years ago. But an interesting picture has emerged of an efficient use of these codes that may put fault tolerant operation within reach. It is now understood that two dimensional surface codes, close relatives of the original toric code of Kitaev, can be adapted to effectively perform logical gate operations in a very simple planar architecture, with error thresholds for fault tolerant operation simulated to be 0.75%. This architecture uses topological ideas in its functioning, but it is not 'topological quantum computation' -- there are no non-abelian anyons in sight. I offer some speculations on the crucial pieces of superconducting hardware that could be demonstrated in the next couple of years that would be clear stepping stones towards this surface-code architecture.
Solid-state spin qubits are a promising platform for quantum computation and quantum networks. Recent experiments have demonstrated high-quality control over multi-qubit systems, elementary quantum algorithms and non-fault-tolerant error correction. Large-scale systems will require using error-corrected logical qubits that are operated fault-tolerantly, so that reliable computation is possible despite noisy operations. Overcoming imperfections in this way remains a major outstanding challenge for quantum science. Here, we demonstrate fault-tolerant operations on a logical qubit using spin qubi…
We present a method to perform fault-tolerant single-qubit gate operations using Landau-Zener tunneling. In a single Landau-Zener pulse, the qubit transition frequency is varied in time so that it passes through the frequency of the radiation field. We show that a simple three-pulse sequence allows eliminating errors in the gate up to the third order in errors in the qubit energies or the radiation frequency.
In the framework quotient algebra partition, a general methodology is introduced to construct fault tolerant encodes for an arbitrary action in an error-correcting code.
We present a quantum circuit synthesis algorithm for implementing universal fault-tolerant quantum computing based on concatenated codes. To realize fault-tolerant quantum computing, the fault-tolerant quantum protocols should be transformed into executable quantum circuits based on the nearest-neighbor interaction. Unlike topological codes that are defined based on local operations fundamentally, for the concatenated codes, it is possible to obtain the circuits composed of the local operations by applying the quantum circuit synthesis. However, by the existing quantum circuit synthesis develo…
A two-dimensional quantum system with anyonic excitations can be considered as a quantum computer. Unitary transformations can be performed by moving the excitations around each other. Measurements can be performed by joining excitations in pairs and observing the result of fusion. Such computation is fault-tolerant by its physical nature.
We present a fault-tolerant semi-global control strategy for universal quantum computers. We show that N-dimensional array of qubits where only (N-1)-dimensional addressing resolution is available is compatible with fault-tolerant universal quantum computation. What is more, we show that measurements and individual control of qubits are required only at the boundaries of the fault-tolerant computer, i.e. holographic fault-tolerant quantum computation. Our model alleviates the heavy physical conditions on current qubit candidates imposed by addressability requirements and represents an option t…
We study the robustness of a fault-tolerant quantum computer subject to Gaussian non-Markovian quantum noise, and we show that scalable quantum computation is possible if the noise power spectrum satisfies an appropriate "threshold condition." Our condition is less sensitive to very-high-frequency noise than previously derived threshold conditions for non-Markovian noise.
We describe a method to execute globally controlled quantum information processing which admits a fault tolerant quantum error correction scheme. Our scheme nominally uses three species of addressable two-level systems which are arranged in a one dimensional array in a specific periodic arrangement. We show that the scheme possesses a fault tolerant error threshold.
In order to use quantum error-correcting codes to actually improve the performance of a quantum computer, it is necessary to be able to perform operations fault-tolerantly on encoded states. I present a general theory of fault-tolerant operations based on symmetries of the code stabilizer. This allows a straightforward determination of which operations can be performed fault-tolerantly on a given code. I demonstrate that fault-tolerant universal computation is possible for any stabilizer code. I discuss a number of examples in more detail, including the five-qubit code.
Quantum walks are expected to serve important modelling and algorithmic applications in many areas of science and mathematics. Although quantum walks have been successfully implemented physically in recent times, no major efforts have been made to combat the error associated with these physical implementations in a fault-tolerant manner. In this paper, we propose a systematic method to implement fault-tolerant quantum walks in discrete time on arbitrarily complex graphs, using quantum states encoded with the Steane code and a set of universal fault tolerant matrix operations.
The schemes for fault-tolerant postselected quantum computation given in [Knill, Fault-Tolerant Postselected Quantum Computation: Schemes, http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0402171] are analyzed to determine their error-tolerance. The analysis is based on computer-assisted heuristics. It indicates that if classical and quantum communication delays are negligible, then scalable qubit-based quantum computation is possible with errors above 1% per elementary quantum gate.
We show that a category of one-dimensional XY-type models may enable high-fidelity quantum state transmissions, regardless of details of coupling configurations. This observation leads to a fault- tolerant design of a state transmission setup. The setup is fault-tolerant, with specified thresholds, against engineering failures of coupling configurations, fabrication imperfections or defects, and even time-dependent noises. We propose the implementation of the fault-tolerant scheme using hard-core bosons in one-dimensional optical lattices.
Steane's 7-qubit quantum error-correcting code admits a set of fault-tolerant gates that generate the Clifford group, which in itself is not universal for quantum computation. The 15-qubit Reed-Muller code also does not admit a universal fault-tolerant gate set but possesses fault-tolerant T and control-control-Z gates. Combined with the Clifford group, either of these two gates generate a universal set. Here, we combine these two features by demonstrating how to fault-tolerantly convert between these two codes, providing a new method to realize universal fault-tolerant quantum computation. On…
I will give an overview of what I see as some of the most important future directions in the theory of fault-tolerant quantum computation. In particular, I will give a brief summary of the major problems that need to be solved in fault tolerance based on low-density parity check codes and in hardware-specific fault tolerance. I will then conclude with a discussion of a possible new paradigm for designing fault-tolerant protocols based on a space-time picture of quantum circuits.
As far as we know, a useful quantum computer will require fault-tolerant gates, and existing schemes demand a prohibitively large space and time overhead. We argue that a first generation quantum computer will be very valuable to design, test, and optimize fault-tolerant protocols tailored to the noise processes of the hardware. Our argument is essentially a critical analysis of the current methods envisioned to optimize fault-tolerant schemes, which rely on hardware characterization, noise modelling, and numerical simulations. We show that, even within a very restricted set of noise models, e…
We present a simple method for constructing optimal fault-tolerant approximations of arbitrary unitary gates using an arbitrary discrete universal gate set. The method presented is numerical and scales exponentially with the number of gates used in the approximation. However, for the specific case of arbitrary single-qubit gates and the fault-tolerant gates permitted by the concatenated 7-qubit Steane code, we find gate sequences sufficiently long and accurate to permit the fault-tolerant factoring of numbers thousands of bits long. A general scaling law of how rapidly these fault-tolerant app…
CSS codes are a subfamily of stabilizer codes especially appropriate for fault-tolerant quantum computations. A very simple method is proposed to encode a general qudit when a Calderbank-Shor-Steane quantum code, defined over a q-ary alphabet, is used.
We explain how to combine holonomic quantum computation (HQC) with fault tolerant quantum error correction. This establishes the scalability of HQC, putting it on equal footing with other models of computation, while retaining the inherent robustness the method derives from its geometric nature.
I make a rough estimate of the accuracy threshold for fault tolerant quantum computing with concatenated codes. First I consider only gate errors and use the depolarizing channel error model. I will follow P.Shor (quant-ph/9505011) for fault tolerant error correction (FTEC) and the fault tolerant implementation of elementary operations on states encoded by the 7-qubit code. A simple computer simulation suggests a threshold for gate errors of the order ε\approx 10^{-3} or better. I also give a simple argument that the threshold for memory errors is about 10 times smaller, thus ε\approx 10^{-4}.
In this paper, adapted from the author's PhD thesis, we present otherwise unpublished results relating to global control schemes, culminating in the calculation of a fault-tolerant threshold for one such scheme. As with early fault-tolerant threshold results, the aim is to calculate a positive number, not to optimise it. We also discuss how the results might affect other related schemes, such as those based on cellular automata.
The threshold estimate derived in previous versions of this paper was incorrect; this note explains the flaw. A new proof is discussed in arXiv:0809.5063.
A method for the implementation of a universal set of fault-tolerant logical gates is presented using homological product codes. In particular, it is shown that one can fault-tolerantly map between different encoded representations of a given logical state, enabling the application of different classes of transversal gates belonging to the underlying quantum codes. This allows for the circumvention of no-go results pertaining to universal sets of transversal gates and provides a general scheme for fault-tolerant computation while keeping the stabilizer generators of the code sparse.
We propose a scalable way to construct a 3D cluster state for fault-tolerant topological one-way computation (TOWC) even if the entangling two-qubit gates succeed with a small probability. It is shown that fault-tolerant TOWC can be performed with the success probability of the two-qubit gate such as 0.5 (0.1) provided that the conditional error probability of the two-qubit gate is less than 0.040% (0.016%). Furthermore, the resource usage is considerably suppressed compared to the conventional fault-tolerant schemes with probabilistic two-qubit gates.
A Flexible GKP-State-Embedded Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computation Configuration Based on a Three-Dimensional Cluster State
Shanxi University（山西大学）；State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics Technologies and Devices, Shanxi University（量子光学技术和器件国家重点实验室，山西大学）；College of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Shanxi University（山西大学物理电子工程学院）；Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University（山西大学极端光学协同创新中心）
We demonstrate an improved concatenated encoded ancilla preparation procedure. Simulations show that this procedure significantly increases the error threshold beneath which arbitrarily long quantum computations are possible.
What is the minimum number of extra qubits needed to perform a large fault-tolerant quantum circuit? Working in a common model of fault-tolerance, I show that in the asymptotic limit of large circuits, the ratio of physical qubits to logical qubits can be a constant. The construction makes use of quantum low-density parity check codes, and the asymptotic overhead of the protocol is equal to that of the family of quantum error-correcting codes underlying the fault-tolerant protocol.
In this paper we demonstrate how data encoded in a five-qubit quantum error correction code can be converted, fault-tolerantly, into a seven-qubit Steane code. This is achieved by progressing through a series of codes, each of which fault-tolerantly corrects at least one error. Throughout the conversion the encoded qubit remains protected. We found, through computational search, that the method used to convert between codes given in this paper is optimal.
We provide a rigorous analysis of fault-tolerant quantum computation in the presence of local leakage faults. We show that one can systematically deal with leakage by using appropriate leakage-reduction units such as quantum teleportation. The leakage noise is described by a Hamiltonian and the noise is treated coherently, similar to general non-Markovian noise analyzed in Refs. quant-ph/0402104 and quant-ph/0504218. We describe ways to limit the use of leakage-reduction units while keeping the quantum circuits fault-tolerant and we also discuss how leakage reduction by teleportation is natura…
We show an equivalence relation between fault-tolerant circuits for a stabilizer code and fault-tolerant adiabatic processes for holonomic quantum computation (HQC), in the case where quantum information is encoded in the degenerated ground space of the system Hamiltonian. By this equivalence, we can systematically construct a fault-tolerant HQC scheme, which can geometrically implement a universal set of encoded quantum gates by adiabatically deforming the system Hamiltonian. During this process, quantum information is protected from low weight thermal excitations by an energy gap that does n…
Quantum error correction protects fragile quantum information by encoding it into a larger quantum system. These extra degrees of freedom enable the detection and correction of errors, but also increase the operational complexity of the encoded logical qubit. Fault-tolerant circuits contain the spread of errors while operating the logical qubit, and are essential for realizing error suppression in practice. While fault-tolerant design works in principle, it has not previously been demonstrated in an error-corrected physical system with native noise characteristics. In this work, we experimenta…
This work is concerned with phrasing the concepts of fault-tolerant quantum computation within the framework of disordered systems, Bernoulli site percolation in particular. We show how the so-called "threshold theorems" on the possibility of fault-tolerant quantum computation with constant error rate can be cast as a renormalization (coarse-graining) of the site percolation process describing the occurrence of errors during computation. We also use percolation techniques to derive a trade-off between the complexity overhead of the fault-tolerant circuit and the threshold error rate.
Flag qubits have recently been proposed in syndrome extraction circuits to detect high-weight errors arising from fewer faults. The use of flag qubits allows the construction of fault-tolerant protocols with the fewest number of ancillas known to-date. In this work, we prove some critical properties of CSS codes constructed from classical cyclic codes that enable the construction of a flag fault-tolerant error correction scheme. We then develop fault-tolerant protocols as well as a family of circuits for flag fault-tolerant error correction and operator measurement, requiring only four ancilla…
We develop a scheme for fault-tolerant quantum computation based on asymmetric Bacon-Shor codes, which works effectively against highly biased noise dominated by dephasing. We find the optimal Bacon-Shor block size as a function of the noise strength and the noise bias, and estimate the logical error rate and overhead cost achieved by this optimal code. Our fault-tolerant gadgets, based on gate teleportation, are well suited for hardware platforms with geometrically local gates in two dimensions.
We propose an easy implementable prepare-and-measure protocol for robust quantum key distribution with photon polarization. The protocol is fault tolerant against collective random unitary channel noise. The protocol does not need any collective quantum measurement or quantum memory. A security proof and a specific linear optical realization using spontaneous parametric down conversion are given.
We investigate how to concatenate different decoherence-free subspaces (DFSs) to realize scalable universal fault-tolerant quantum computation. Based on tunable $XXZ$ interactions, we present an architecture for scalable quantum computers which can fault-tolerantly perform universal quantum computation by manipulating only single type of parameter. By using the concept of interaction-free subspaces we eliminate the need to tune the couplings between logical qubits, which further reduces the technical difficulties for implementing quantum computation.
A major challenge in practical quantum computation is the ineludible errors caused by the interaction of quantum systems with their environment. Fault-tolerant schemes, in which logical qubits are encoded by several physical qubits, enable correct output of logical qubits under the presence of errors. However, strict requirements to encode qubits and operators render the implementation of a full fault-tolerant computation challenging even for the achievable noisy intermediate-scale quantum technology. Here, we experimentally demonstrate the existence of the threshold in a special fault-toleran…
Constant-space-overhead fault-tolerant quantum input/output and communication
Institute for Quantum Computing and Department of Combinatorics and Optimization, University of Waterloo（滑铁卢大学量子计算研究所与组合优化系）；Department of Computer Science, Graduate School of Information Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo（东京大学信息理工学研究科计算机科学系）
An important approach to the fault-tolerant quantum computation is protecting the logical information using the quantum error correction. Usually, the logical information is in the form of logical qubits, which are encoded in physical qubits using quantum error correction codes. Compared with the qubit quantum computation, the fermionic quantum computation has advantages in quantum simulations of fermionic systems, e.g. molecules. In this paper, we show that the fermionic quantum computation can be universal and fault-tolerant if we encode logical Majorana fermions in physical Majorana fermion…
Instead of a quantum computer where the fundamental units are 2-dimensional qubits, we can consider a quantum computer made up of d-dimensional systems. There is a straightforward generalization of the class of stabilizer codes to d-dimensional systems, and I will discuss the theory of fault-tolerant computation using such codes. I prove that universal fault-tolerant computation is possible with any higher-dimensional stabilizer code for prime d.
Quantum circuits implementing fault-tolerant quantum error correction (QEC) for the three qubit bit-flip code and five-qubit code are studied. To describe the effect of noise, we apply a model based on a generalized effective Hamiltonian where the system-environment interactions are taken into account by including stochastic fluctuating terms in the system Hamiltonian. This noise model enables us to investigate the effect of noise in quantum circuits under realistic device conditions and avoid strong assumptions such as maximal parallelism and weak storage errors. Noise thresholds of the QEC c…
We present a scheme of fault-tolerant quantum computation for a local architecture in two spatial dimensions. The error threshold is 0.75% for each source in an error model with preparation, gate, storage and measurement errors.
We describe a fault-tolerant one-way quantum computer on cluster states in three dimensions. The presented scheme uses methods of topological error correction resulting from a link between cluster states and surface codes. The error threshold is 1.4% for local depolarizing error and 0.11% for each source in an error model with preparation-, gate-, storage- and measurement errors.
Quantum computation can be performed by encoding logical qubits into the states of two or more physical qubits, and controlling a single effective exchange interaction and possibly a global magnetic field. This "encoded universality" paradigm offers potential simplifications in quantum computer design since it does away with the need to perform single-qubit rotations. Here we show that encoded universality schemes can be combined with quantum error correction. In particular, we show explicitly how to perform fault-tolerant leakage correction, thus overcoming the main obstacle to fault-tolerant…
A Three-Layer Architecture for Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing
Center on Frontiers of Computing Studies, Peking University（前沿计算研究中心，北京大学）；School of Computer Science, Peking University（计算机学院，北京大学）；Graduate School of China Academy of Engineering Physics（中国工程物理研究院研究生院）
Robust quantum computation requires encoding delicate quantum information into degrees of freedom that are hard for the environment to change. Quantum encodings have been demonstrated in many physical systems by observing and correcting storage errors, but applications require not just storing information; we must accurately compute even with faulty operations. The theory of fault-tolerant quantum computing illuminates a way forward by providing a foundation and collection of techniques for limiting the spread of errors. Here we implement one of the smallest quantum codes in a five-qubit super…
The quantum logic gates used in the design of a quantum computer should be both universal, meaning arbitrary quantum computations can be performed, and fault-tolerant, meaning the gates keep errors from cascading out of control. A number of no-go theorems constrain the ways in which a set of fault-tolerant logic gates can be universal. These theorems are very restrictive, and conventional wisdom holds that a universal fault-tolerant logic gate set cannot be implemented natively, requiring us to use costly distillation procedures for quantum computation. Here, we present a general framework for…
We show that quantum circuits cannot be made fault-tolerant against a depolarizing noise level of approximately 45%, thereby improving on a previous bound of 50% (due to Razborov). Our precise quantum circuit model enables perfect gates from the Clifford group (CNOT, Hadamard, S, X, Y, Z) and arbitrary additional one-qubit gates that are subject to that much depolarizing noise. We prove that this set of gates cannot be universal for arbitrary (even classical) computation, from which the upper bound on the noise threshold for fault-tolerant quantum computation follows.
Transversal implementations of encoded unitary gates are highly desirable for fault-tolerant quantum computation. Though transversal gates alone cannot be computationally universal, they can be combined with specially distilled resource states in order to achieve universality. We show that "triorthogonal" stabilizer codes, introduced for state distillation by Bravyi and Haah [Phys. Rev. A 86 052329 (2012)], admit transversal implementation of the controlled-controlled-Z gate. We then construct a universal set of fault-tolerant gates without state distillation by using only transversal controll…
Reliable qubits are difficult to engineer, but standard fault-tolerance schemes use seven or more physical qubits to encode each logical qubit, with still more qubits required for error correction. The large overhead makes it hard to experiment with fault-tolerance schemes with multiple encoded qubits. The 15-qubit Hamming code protects seven encoded qubits to distance three. We give fault-tolerant procedures for applying arbitrary Clifford operations on these encoded qubits, using only two extra qubits, 17 total. In particular, individual encoded qubits within the code block can be targeted. …
Error-correction process has to be carried out periodically to prevent accumulation of errors in fault-tolerant quantum computation. It is believed that the best choice to get maximum threshold value is carrying out an error-correction process after each quantum gate operation. Result of this note shows that the optimal error-correction period depends on the value of k which is the level number of concatenated quantum error-correction code.
