发表机构
Observatoire de Paris, LUX, PSL University; INAF, Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio; INFN, Sezione di Bologna（巴黎天文台，LUX，巴黎文理研究大学; 意大利国家天体物理研究所，空间天体物理与天体物理学观测站; 意大利国家核物理研究所，博洛尼部分部）
机构由 AI 辅助整理，请以论文原文为准。AI 中文总结
该研究通过建模确定椭圆星系、星系群和星系团的热气体熵过剩，对比中心黑洞能量输出，发现黑洞将1%-3%能量热化为气体，不同尺度天体存在不同加热冷却机制。
AI 中文摘要
相对于仅由引力加热的模型和模拟的理论预期，星系群显示出熵过剩ΔS。我们确定非引力源在椭圆星系、星系群和星系团的热气体中沉积的热量Q_heat≈TΔS，并将其与它们中心黑洞（BHs）的能量输出进行比较。我们采用仅含一个自由参数（核心熵）的热气体简单模型，根据观测到的X射线光度与晕质量的关系校准核心熵，并用其确定热气体的熵S。我们通过将S与相同质量晕的宇宙绝热模拟中得到的熵S_0作差，确定ΔS=S−S_0。加热阶段热气体的温度T，通过半解析/半经验建模，假设热量吸收遵循超大质量黑洞的吸积历史来确定。我们的发现表明，超大质量黑洞将其能量输出的1%至3%热化为周围气体的热量。我们的结果提示两种机制：（i）在椭圆星系和星系群中，活动星系核（AGN）加热气体的速度远快于气体冷却速度，从而产生观测到的熵过剩，当积累的热量足够大以解除宿主晕中气体储层的束缚时，会使恒星形成停止；（ii）在星系团（M_200>10^14M_⊙）中，加热与冷却处于自调节平衡状态。
英文摘要
Galaxy groups show entropy excesses $ΔS$ with respect to theoretical expectations from models and simulations with purely gravitational heating. We determine the heat $Q_{\rm heat}\simeq TΔS$ deposited by non-gravitational sources into the hot gas of elliptical galaxies, groups and clusters, and to compare it with the energy output of their central black holes (BHs). We adopt a simple model for the hot gas with only one free parameter: the core entropy. We calibrate the core entropy on the observed relation between X-ray luminosity and halo mass, and we use it to determine the entropy $S$ of the hot gas. We determine $ΔS=S-S_0$ by taking the difference between $S$ and the entropy $S_0$ found in cosmological adiabatic simulations for haloes of the same mass. The temperature $T$ of the hot gas during the heating phase is determined from semi-analytic/semi-empirical modelling by assuming that heat absorption traces the accretion histories of supermassive BHs. Our findings suggest that supermassive BHs thermalise 1 to $3\%$ of their energy output in the surrounding gas. Our results suggest two regimes: (i) in elliptical galaxies and groups, active galactic nuclei (AGN) heat the gas much more rapidly than it can cool, generating the observed entropy excesses and quenching star formation when the accumulated heat is large enough to unbind the gas reservoir in the host halo; (ii) in galaxy clusters (at $M_{200}>10^{14}{\rm\,M}_\odot$), heating and cooling are in self-regulated equilibrium.
Comments13 pages (+4 pages of Appendix); accepted for publication in A&A
