Quantum information processing has been one of the pillars of the new information age. In this sense, the control and processing of quantum information plays a fundamental role, and computers capable of manipulating such information have become a reality. In this article we didactically present basic elements of the latest version of IBM's quantum computer and its main tools. We also present in detail the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm used to differentiate constant functions from balanced functions, also, including a discussion of its efficiency against classical algorithms for the same task. The experimental implementation of the algorithm in a 4-qbit system is presented. Our article paves the way for a series of didactic investigations into the IBM system as well as the best known quantum algorithms.
The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is a generalization of the Deutsch algorithm which was the first algorithm written. We present schemes to implement the Deutsch algorithm and the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm via cavity QED.
We generalize the Deutsch-Jozsa problem and present a quantum algorithm that can solve the generalized Deutsch-Jozsa problem by a single evaluation of a given function. We discuss the initialization of an auxiliary register and present a generalized Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm that requires no initialization of an auxiliary register.
We reveal a close relationship between quantum metrology and the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm on continuous variable quantum systems. We develop a general procedure, characterized by two parameters, that unifies parameter estimation and the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm. Depending on which parameter we keep constant, the procedure implements either the parameter estimation protocol or the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm. The parameter estimation part of the procedure attains the Heisenberg limit and is therefore optimal. Due to the use of approximate normalizable continuous variable eigenstates the Deutsch-Jozsa…
A redundancy in the existing Deutsch-Jozsa quantum algorithm is removed and a refined algorithm, which reduces the size of the register and simplifies the function evaluation, is proposed. The refined version allows a simpler analysis of the use of entanglement between the qubits in the algorithm and provides criteria for deciding when the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm constitutes a meaningful test of quantum computation.
Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm has been implemented via a quantum adiabatic evolution by S. Das et al. [Phys. Rev. A 65, 062310 (2002)]. This adiabatic algorithm gives rise to a quadratic speed up over classical algorithms. We show that a modified version of the adiabatic evolution in that paper can improve the performance to constant time.
We propose a physical scheme for implementing the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm using atomic ensembles and optical devices. The scheme has inherent fault tolerance to the realistic noise and efficient scaling with the number of ensembles for some entangled states within the reach of current technology. It would be an important step toward more complex quantum computation via atomic ensembles.
We report on a fiber-optics implementation of the Deutsch-Jozsa and Bernstein-Vazirani quantum algorithms for 8-point functions. The measured visibility of the 8-path interferometer is about 97.5%. Potential applications of our setup to quantum communication or cryptographic protocols using several qubits are discussed.
The first optical proposal for the realization of the two-bit version of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm [D. Deutsch and R. Jozsa, Proc. R. Soc. London A {\bf 493}, 553 (1992)] is presented. The proposal uses Stark shifts in an ensemble of atoms and degenerate sources of photons. The photons interact dispersively with an atomic ensemble, leading to an effective Hamiltonian in atom-field basis, which is useful for performing the required two-qubit operations. Combining these with a set of one-qubit operations, the algorithm can be implemented. A discussion of the experimental feasibility of the pro…
We describe a general framework for regarding oracle-assisted quantum algorithms as tools for discriminating between unitary transformations. We apply this to the Deutsch-Jozsa problem and derive all possible quantum algorithms which solve the problem with certainty using oracle unitaries in a particular form. We also use this to show that any quantum algorithm that solves the Deutsch-Jozsa problem starting with a quantum system in a particular class of initial, thermal equilibrium-based states of the type encountered in solution state NMR can only succeed with greater probability than a class…
In 1985, David Deutsch challenged the Church-Turing thesis by stating that his quantum model of computation "could, in principle, be built and would have many remarkable properties not reproducible by any Turing machine". While this is thought to be true in general, there is usually no way of knowing that the corresponding classical algorithms are the best possible solutions. Here we provide an efficient classical simulation of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, which was one of the first examples of quantum computational speed-up. Our conclusion is that the Deutsch-Jozsa quantum algorithm owes its …
We show that fundamental versions of the Deutsch-Jozsa and Bernstein-Vazirani quantum algorithms can be performed using a small entangled cluster state resource of only six qubits. We then investigate the minimal resource states needed to demonstrate arbitrary n-qubit versions and a scalable method to produce them. For this purpose we propose a versatile on-chip photonic waveguide setup.
We present an idealized quantum continuous variable analog of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm which can be implemented on a perfect continuous variable quantum computer. Using the Fourier transformation and XOR gate appropriate for continuous spectra we show that under ideal operation to infinite precision that there is an infinite reduction in number of query calls in this scheme.
The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is experimentally demonstrated for three-qubit functions using pure coherent superpositions of Li$_{2}$ rovibrational eigenstates. The function's character, either constant or balanced, is evaluated by first imprinting the function, using a phase-shaped femtosecond pulse, on a coherent superposition of the molecular states, and then projecting the superposition onto an ionic final state, using a second femtosecond pulse at a specific time delay.
Schemes of experimental realization of the main two qubit processors for quantum computers and Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm are derived in virtual spin representation. The results are applicable for every four quantum states allowing the required properties for quantum processor implementation if for qubit encoding virtual spin representation is used. Four dimensional Hilbert space of nuclear spin 3/2 is considered in details for this aim
We examine the "Guessing Secrets" problem arising in internet routing, in which the goal is to discover two or more objects from a known finite set. We propose a quantum algorithm using O(1) calls to an O(logN) oracle. This improves upon the best known classical result, which uses O(logN) questions and requires an additional O(logN^3) steps to produce the answer. In showing the possibilities of this algorithm, we extend the types of questions and function oracles that the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm can be used to solve.
We present a simple scheme to implement the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm based on two-atom interaction in a thermal cavity. The photon-number-dependent parts in the evolution operator are canceled with the strong resonant classical field added. As a result, our scheme is immune to thermal field, and does not require the cavity to remain in the vacuum state throughout the procedure. Besides, large detuning between the atoms and the cavity is not necessary neither, leading to potential speed up of quantum operation. Finally, we show by numerical simulation that the proposed scheme is equal to demonst…
Hoyer has given a generalisation of the Deutsch--Jozsa algorithm which uses the Fourier transform on a group G which is (in general) non-Abelian. His algorithm distinguishes between functions which are either perfectly balanced (m-to-one) or constant, with certainty, and using a single quantum query. Here, we show that this algorithm (which we call the Deutsch--Jozsa--Hoyer algorithm) can in fact deal with a broader range of promises, which we define in terms of the irreducible representations of G.
A detailed description of the development of a three qubit NMR realization of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm [Collins et.al., Phys. Rev. A 62, 022304 (2000)] is provided. The theoretical and experimental techniques used for the reduction of the algorithm's evolution steps into a sequence of NMR pulses are discussed at length. This includes the description of general pulse sequence compilation techniques, various schemes for indirectly coupled gate realizations, experimental pulse parameterization techniques and bookkeeping methods for pulse phases.
In this work Controlled phase shift gates are implemented on a qaudrupolar system, by using non-adiabatic geometric phases. A general procedure is given, for implementing controlled phase shift gates in an 'N' level system. The utility of such controlled phase shift gates, is demonstrated here by implementing 3-qubit Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm on a 7/2 quadrupolar nucleus oriented in a liquid crystal matrix.
We discuss the ensemble version of the Deutsch-Jozsa (DJ) algorithm which attempts to provide a "scalable" implementation on an expectation-value NMR quantum computer. We show that this ensemble implementation of the DJ algorithm is at best as efficient as the classical random algorithm. As soon as any attempt is made to classify all possible functions with certainty, the implementation requires an exponentially large number of molecules. The discrepancies arise out of the interpretation of mixed state density matrices.
Quantum computing takes fully advantage of the superposition principle to increase greatly (even exponentially) the speed of calculations, relative to the classical approach. The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is the simplest quantum algorithm illustrating this power. Unfortunately, the standard derivation involves several ingenious steps which usually leave students feeling that they could never have figured out the algorithm by themselves. We present here a different formulation of the problem which allows students to derive the algorithm using only basic knowledge of quantum mechanics and linear a…
We demonstrate experimentally the usefulness of selective pulses in NMR to perform quantum computation. Three different techniques based on selective pulse excitations have been proposed to prepare a spin system in a pseudo-pure state. We describe the design of novel ``portmanteau'' gates using the selective manipulation of level populations. A selective pulse implementation of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm for a two-qubit and a three-qubit quantum computer is demonstrated.
A scheme to execute an n-bit Deutsch-Jozsa (D-J) algorithm using n qubits has been implemented for up to three qubits on an NMR quantum computer. For the one and two bit Deutsch problem, the qubits do not get entangled, hence the NMR implementation is achieved without using spin-spin interactions. It is for the three bit case, that the manipulation of entangled states becomes essential. The interactions through scalar J-couplings in NMR spin systems have been exploited to implement entangling transformations required for the three bit D-J algorithm.
We theoretically study the realization of a multi-qubit refined Deutsch-Jozsa (DJ) algorithm using resonant interaction of many Rydberg atoms with a single-mode microwave cavity, in which the multi-qubit controlled phase gates could be accomplished efficiently. We show how to achieve a multi-qubit refined DJ algorithm in high fidelity, even in the case of a weak cavity decay and some imperfection. We argue that the required operations in our scheme are almost within the present experimental possibilities.
That superpositions of states can be useful for performing tasks in quantum systems has been known since the early days of quantum information, but only recently has quantitative theory of quantum coherence been proposed. Here we apply that theory to an analysis of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, which depends on quantum coherence for its operation. The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm solves a decision problem, and we focus on a probabilistic version of that problem, comparing probability of being correct for both classical and quantum procedures. In addition, we study a related decision problem in which…
The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm distinguishes constant functions from balanced functions with a single evaluation. In the first part of this work, we present simulations of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) application of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm to a 3-spin system for all possible balanced functions. Three different kinds of initial states are considered: a thermal state, a pseudopure state, and a pair (difference) of pseudopure states. Then, simulations of several balanced functions and the two constant functions of a 5-spin system are described. Finally, corresponding experimental spectra…
We describe the first experimental realization of the Deutsch-Jozsa quantum algorithm to evaluate the properties of a 2-bit boolean function in the framework of one-way quantum computation. For this purpose a novel two-photon six-qubit cluster state was engineered. Its peculiar topological structure is the basis of the original measurement pattern allowing the algorithm realization. The good agreement of the experimental results with the theoretical predictions, obtained at $\sim$1kHz success rate, demonstrate the correct implementation of the algorithm.
A new approach to the implementation of a quantum computer by high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is described. The key feature is that two or more line-selective radio-frequency pulses are applied simultaneously. A three-qubit quantum computer has been investigated using the 400 MHz NMR spectrum of the three coupled protons in 2,3-dibromopropanoic acid. It has been employed to implement the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm for distinguishing between constant and balanced functions. The extension to systems containing more coupled spins is straightforward and does not require a more protra…
Using the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, we will develop a method for solving a class of problems in which we need to determine parts of an array and then apply a specified function to each independent part. Since present quantum computers are not robust enough for code writing and execution, we will build a model of a vector quantum computer that implements the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm from a machine language view using the APL2 programming language. The core of the method is an operator (DJBOX) which allows evaluation of an arbitrary function f by the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm. Two key functions of t…
We investigate the creation of entanglement by the application of phases whose value depends on the state of a collection of qubits. First we give the necessary and sufficient conditions for a given set of phases to result in the creation of entanglement in a state comprising of an arbitrary number of qubits. Then we analyze the creation of entanglement between any two qubits in three qubit pure and mixed states. We use our result to prove that entanglement is necessary for Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm to have an exponential advantage over its classical counterpart.
We implemented the refined Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm on a 3-bit nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer, which is the meaningful test of quantum parallelism because qubits are entangled. All of the balanced and constant functions were realized exactly. The results agree well with theoretical predictions and clearly distinguish the balanced functions from constant functions. Efficient refocusing schemes were proposed for the soft z-pulse and J-coupling and it is proved that the thermal equilibrium state gives the same results as the pure state for this algorithm.
A long-standing aim of quantum information research is to understand what gives quantum computers their advantage. This requires separating problems that need genuinely quantum resources from those for which classical resources are enough. Two examples of quantum speed-up are the Deutsch-Jozsa and Simon's problem, both efficiently solvable on a quantum Turing machine, and both believed to lack efficient classical solutions. Here we present a framework that can simulate both quantum algorithms efficiently, solving the Deutsch-Jozsa problem with probability 1 using only one oracle query, and Sim…
We propose a scalable method on the basis of nth-order coupling operators to construct f-dependent phase transformations in the n-qubit modified Deutsch-Jozsa (D-J) quantum algorithm. The novel n-qubit entangling transformations are easily implemented via J-couplings between neighboring spins. The seven-qubit modified D-J quantum algorithm and seventh-order coupling transformations are then experimentally demonstrated with liquid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. The method may offer the possibility of creating generally entangled states of n qubits and simulating n-body inter…
Boolean functions are important building blocks in cryptography for their wide application in both stream and block cipher systems. For cryptanalysis of such systems one tries to find out linear functions that are correlated to the Boolean functions used in the crypto system. Let $f$ be an $n$-variable Boolean function and its Walsh spectra is denoted by $W_f(ω)$ at the point $ω\in \{0, 1\}^n$. The Boolean function is available in the form of an oracle. We like to find an $ω$ such that $W_f(ω) \neq 0$ as this will provide one of the linear functions which are correlated to $f$. We show that th…
We propose a protocol to construct the 35 $f$-controlled phase gates of a three-qubit refined Deutsch-Jozsa (DJ) algorithm, by using single-qubit $σ_z$ gates, two-qubit controlled phase gates, and two-target-qubit controlled phase gates. Using this protocol, we discuss how to implement the three-qubit refined DJ algorithm with superconducting transmon qutrits resonantly coupled to a single cavity. Our numerical calculation shows that implementation of this quantum algorithm is feasible within the present circuit QED technique. The experimental realization of this algorithm would be an importan…
The nitrogen-vacancy defect center (NV center) is a promising candidate for quantum information processing due to the possibility of coherent manipulation of individual spins in the absence of the cryogenic requirement. We report a room-temperature implementation of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm by encoding both a qubit and an auxiliary state in the electron spin of a single NV center. By thus exploiting the specific S=1 character of the spin system, we demonstrate how even scarce quantum resources can be used for test-bed experiments on the way towards a large-scale quantum computing architectu…
We investigate the realization of a simple solid-state quantum computer by implementing the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm in a system of Josephson charge qubits. Starting from a procedure to carry out the one-qubit Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm we show how the N-qubit version of the Bernstein-Vazirani algorithm can be realized. For the implementation of the three-qubit Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm we study in detail a setup which allows to produce entangled states.
Quantum correlations have been pointed out as the most likely source of the speed-up in quantum computation. Here we analyzed the presence of quantum correlations in the implementation of Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm running in the DQC1 and DQCp models of quantum computing. For some balanced functions, the qubits in DQC1 model are quantum correlated just in the intermediate steps of the algorithm for a given decomposition into one and two qubits gates. In the DQCp model the final state is strongly quantum correlated for some balanced functions, so that the pairwise entanglement between blocks scale…
Quantum computing implementations under consideration today typically deal with systems with microscopic degrees of freedom such as photons, ions, cold atoms, and superconducting circuits. The quantum information is stored typically in low-dimensional Hilbert spaces such as qubits, as quantum effects are strongest in such systems. It has however been demonstrated that quantum effects can be observed in mesoscopic and macroscopic systems, such as nanomechanical systems and gas ensembles. While few-qubit quantum information demonstrations have been performed with such macroscopic systems, a quan…
The Deustch-Jozsa problem is one of the most basic ways to demonstrate the power of quantum computation. Consider a Boolean function f : {0,1}^n to {0,1} and suppose we have a black-box to compute f. The Deutsch-Jozsa problem is to determine if f is constant (i.e. f(x) = const forall x in {0,1}^n) or if f is balanced (i.e. f(x) = 0 for exactly half the possible input strings x in {0,1}^n) using as few calls to the black-box computing f as is possible, assuming f is guaranteed to be constant or balanced. Classically it appears that this requires at least 2^{n-1}+1 black-box calls in the worst c…
This paper demonstrates the use of entanglement resources in quantum speedup by presenting an algorithm which is the generalization of an algorithm proposed by Goswami and Panigrahi [arXiv:1706.09489 (2017)]. We generalize the algorithm and show that it provides deterministic solutions having an advantage over classical algorithm. The algorithm answers the question of whether a given function is constant or balanced and whether two functions are equal or unequal. Finally, we experimentally verify the algorithm by using IBM's five-qubit quantum computer with a high fidelity.
We propose a way to implement a three-qubit refined Deutsh-Jozsa (DJ) algorithm. The present proposal is based on the construction of the 35 $f$-controlled phase gates, which uses single-qubit $σ_z$ gates and two-qubit {\it standard} controlled-phase (CP) gates only. This proposal is implementable because a single-qubit $σ_z$ gate can be easily realized by applying a single classical pulse and a two-qubit CP gate has been experimentally demonstrated in various physical systems. Finally, it is noted that this proposal is quite general, and can be applied to implement a three-qubit refined DJ al…
We want in this article to show the usefulness of Quantum Turing Machine (QTM) in a high-level didactic context as well as in theoretical studies. We use QTM to show its equivalence with quantum circuit model for Deutsch and Deutsch-Jozsa algorithms. Further we introduce a strategy of translation from Quantum Circuit to Quantum Turing models by these examples. Moreover we illustrate some features of Quantum Computing such as superposition from a QTM point of view and starting with few simple examples very known in Quantum Circuit form.
Deutsch-Jozsa (DJ) problem is one of the most important problems demonstrating the power of quantum algorithm. DJ problem can be described as a Boolean function $f$: $\{0,1\}^n\rightarrow \{0,1\}$ with promising it is either constant or balanced, and the purpose is to determine which type it is. DJ algorithm can solve it exactly with one query. In this paper, we first discover the inherent structure of DJ problem in distributed scenario by giving a number of equivalence characterizations between $f$ being constant (balanced) and some properties of $f$'s subfunctions, and then we propose three …
A hybrid model of the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is presented, inspired by the proposals of hybrid computation by S. Lloyd and P. van Loock et. al. The model is based on two observations made about both the discrete and continuous algorithms already available. First, the Fourier transform is a single-step operation in a continuous-variable (CV) setting. Additionally, any implementation of the oracle is nontrivial in both schemes. The steps of the computation are very similar to those in the CV algorithm, with the main difference being the way in which the qunats, or quantum units of analogic info…
It is presently shown that the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is connected to the concept of bent function. Particularly, it is noticeable that the quantum circuit used to denote the well known quantum algorithm is by itself the quantum computer which performs the Walsh transform of a Boolean function. Consequently, the output from Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, when the hidden function is bent, corresponds to a flat spectrum of quantum states.
We propose an optical implementation of the Deutsch-Jozsa Algorithm using classical light in a binary decision-tree scheme. Our approach uses a ring cavity and linear optical devices in order to efficiently quarry the oracle functional values. In addition, we take advantage of the intrinsic Fourier transforming properties of a lens to read out whether the function given by the oracle is balanced or constant.
The present work points out that the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm was the first formal description of a quantum decider. In particular, it is studied here the class of languages whose indicator functions allow the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm to output a monochromatic result, beyond the trivial case z = 0 for constant indicator functions. To illustrate examples of randomly balanced languages and some monochromatic cases, it was performed classical computational simulations of the Deutsch-Jozsa quantum algorithm for the specific cases of 4 and 6 qubits, respectively. The general case of the Deutsch-Jozsa…
The memory effects in non-Markovian quantum dynamics can induce the revival of quantum coherence, which is believed to provide important physical resources for quantum information processing (QIP). However, no real quantum algorithms have been demonstrated with the help of such memory effects. Here, we experimentally implemented a non-Markovianity-assisted highfidelity refined Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm (RDJA) with a solid spin in diamond. The memory effects can induce pronounced nonmonotonic variations in the RDJA results, which were confirmed to follow a non-Markovian quantum process by measuri…
We analyse the design and optimisation of quantum logic circuits suitable for the experimental demonstration of a three-qubit quantum computation prototype based on optically-controlled, solid-state quantum logic gates. In these gates, the interaction between two qubits carried by the electron-spin of donors is mediated by the optical excitation of a control particle placed in their proximity. First, we use a geometrical approach for analysing the entangling characteristics of these quantum gates. Then, using a genetic programming algorithm, we develop circuits for the refined Deutsch-Jozsa al…
In the black-box model, problems constrained by a `promise' are the only ones that admit a quantum exponential speedup over the best classical algorithm in terms of query complexity. The most prominent example of this is the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm. More recently, Wim van Dam put forward an algorithm for unstructured problems (i.e., those without a promise). We consider the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm with a less restrictive (or `broken') promise and study the transition to an unstructured problem. We compare this to the success of van Dam's algorithm. These are both compared with a standard class…
Time-Frequency Resolved Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (TFRCARS) was recently proposed as a means to implement quantum logic using the molecular ro-vibrational manifold as a quantum register [R. Zadoyan et al., Chem. Phys. 266, 323 (2001)]. We give a concrete example of how this can be accomplished through an illustrative algorithm that solves the Deutsch-Jozsa problem. We use realistic molecular parameters to recognize that, as the problem size expands, shaped pulses must be tailored to maintain fidelity of the algorithm.
