钚的驯服：钚冶金与曼哈顿计划
The Taming of Plutonium: Pu Metallurgy and the Manhattan Project
摘要：
我们描述了与钚化学和冶金学的快速发展相关的战时挑战，这些化学和冶金学是生产三一装置核心所必需的。从1943年晚些时候微克数量的钚金属开始，最初的测量显示出密度和其他性质的广泛而混乱的变化。这些令人困惑的结果是了解钚惊人复杂性的第一条线索。随着这种复杂性的揭示，它为公斤级零件的制造带来了新的挑战。从1944年1月到1945年6月，曼哈顿计划的科学家们在了解钚化学和冶金学方面取得了快速进展。到1945年初，他们已经发现了六种非合金钚的常压相中的五种，并报告说这些相的密度与今天公认的密度值相差不到0.1 g/cm $^3$。他们通过快速合金开发计划解决了这些相带来的稳定性问题，最终确定镓为稳定δ相的首选元素，生产出今天仍然具有科学和技术意义的钚合金。最后，我们在这些领域的战后发展的描述，包括战时钚冶金民用核反应堆的应用。我们谨以此文纪念曼哈顿计划钚专家埃德·哈梅尔，他在战争期间对钚历史的描述和记录对我们的研究至关重要。
英文摘要：
We describe the wartime challenges associated with the rapid developments in plutonium chemistry and metallurgy that were necessary to produce the core of the Trinity Device. Beginning with microgram quantities of plutonium metal late in 1943, initial measurements showed a wide and confusing variance in density and other properties. These confusing results were the first clues to the astounding complexity of plutonium. As this complexity was revealed, it introduced new challenges for the fabrication of kilogram-scale parts. In a remarkable period from January 1944 to June 1945, Manhattan Project scientists made rapid progress in understanding plutonium chemistry and metallurgy. By early 1945, they had discovered five of the six ambient-pressure phases of unalloyed plutonium and reported the density of these phases to within a value of 0.1 g/cm$^3$ of those accepted today. They solved the stability problem introduced by these phases with a rapid alloy development program that ultimately identified gallium as the preferred element to stabilize the delta-phase, producing a plutonium alloy still of scientific and technical interest today. We conclude with a description of post-war developments in these areas, including applications of wartime plutonium metallurgy to civilian applications in nuclear reactors. We dedicate this paper to the memory of Ed Hammel, the Manhattan Project plutonium metallurgist whose previous description and documentation of plutonium history during the war has been essential in our research.
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