We show that the way inference is performed in few-shot segmentation tasks has a substantial effect on performances -- an aspect often overlooked in the literature in favor of the meta-learning paradigm. We introduce a transductive inference for a given query image, leveraging the statistics of its unlabeled pixels, by optimizing a new loss containing three complementary terms: i) the cross-entropy on the labeled support pixels; ii) the Shannon entropy of the posteriors on the unlabeled query-image pixels; and iii) a global KL-divergence regularizer based on the proportion of the predicted foreground. As our inference uses a simple linear classifier of the extracted features, its computational load is comparable to inductive inference and can be used on top of any base training. Foregoing episodic training and using only standard cross-entropy training on the base classes, our inference yields competitive performances on standard benchmarks in the 1-shot scenarios. As the number of available shots increases, the gap in performances widens: on PASCAL-5i, our method brings about 5% and 6% improvements over the state-of-the-art, in the 5- and 10-shot scenarios, respectively. Furthermore, we introduce a new setting that includes domain shifts, where the base and novel classes are drawn from different datasets. Our method achieves the best performances in this more realistic setting. Our code is freely available online: https://github.com/mboudiaf/RePRI-for-Few-Shot-Segmentation.
Language-Aware Information Maximization for Transductive Few-Shot CLIP
École de Technologie Supérieure (ÉTS)（École de Technologie Supérieure）；Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain)（Université Catholique de Louvain）；Université de Mons (UMons)（Université de Mons）
We present a novel method for few-shot video classification, which performs appearance and temporal alignments. In particular, given a pair of query and support videos, we conduct appearance alignment via frame-level feature matching to achieve the appearance similarity score between the videos, while utilizing temporal order-preserving priors for obtaining the temporal similarity score between the videos. Moreover, we introduce a few-shot video classification framework that leverages the above appearance and temporal similarity scores across multiple steps, namely prototype-based training and…
Few-shot learning aims to train a classifier that can generalize well when just a small number of labeled examples per class are given. We introduce a transductive maximum margin classifier for few-shot learning (FS-TMMC). The basic idea of the classical maximum margin classifier is to solve an optimal prediction function so that the training data can be correctly classified by the resulting classifer with the largest geometric margin. In few-shot learning, it is challenging to find such classifiers with good generalization ability due to the insufficiency of training data in the support set. …
UiT The Arctic University of Norway（挪威北极大学UiT）；Norwegian Computing Center（挪威计算中心）；University of Copenhagen（哥本哈根大学）
Distance-based classification is frequently used in transductive few-shot learning (FSL). However, due to the high-dimensionality of image representations, FSL classifiers are prone to suffer from the hubness problem, where a few points (hubs) occur frequently in multiple nearest neighbour lists of other points. Hubness negatively impacts distance-based classification when hubs from one class appear often among the nearest neighbors of points from another class, degrading the classifier's performance. To address the hubness problem in FSL, we first prove that hubness can be eliminated by distr…
Australian National University（澳大利亚国立大学）；Data61-CSIRO（Data61-联邦科学与工业研究组织）；Australian Centre for Robotic Vision（澳大利亚机器人视觉中心）
Zero-shot learning, the task of learning to recognize new classes not seen during training, has received considerable attention in the case of 2D image classification. However despite the increasing ubiquity of 3D sensors, the corresponding 3D point cloud classification problem has not been meaningfully explored and introduces new challenges. This paper extends, for the first time, transductive Zero-Shot Learning (ZSL) and Generalized Zero-Shot Learning (GZSL) approaches to the domain of 3D point cloud classification. To this end, a novel triplet loss is developed that takes advantage of unlab…
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile（智利天主教大学）；Samsung AI Centre Cambridge（三星人工智能中心剑桥）；Stanford University（斯坦福大学）；KU Leuven（鲁汶大学）；Facebook AI（Facebook 人工智能）
Recently, few-shot video classification has received an increasing interest. Current approaches mostly focus on effectively exploiting the temporal dimension in videos to improve learning under low data regimes. However, most works have largely ignored that videos are often accompanied by rich textual descriptions that can also be an essential source of information to handle few-shot recognition cases. In this paper, we propose to leverage these human-provided textual descriptions as privileged information when training a few-shot video classification model. Specifically, we formulate a text-b…
Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CASIA)（中国科学院自动化研究所）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS)（中国科学院大学）；University of Science and Technology of China (USTC)（中国科学技术大学）
Few-shot learning aims to learn to generalize a classifier to novel classes with limited labeled data. Transductive inference that utilizes unlabeled test set to deal with low-data problem has been employed for few-shot learning in recent literature. Yet, these methods do not explicitly exploit the manifold structures of semantic clusters, which is inefficient for transductive inference. In this paper, we propose a novel Progressive Cluster Purification (PCP) method for transductive few-shot learning. The PCP can progressively purify the cluster by exploring the semantic interdependency in the…
Delft University of Technology（代尔夫特理工大学）；Shell Global Solutions International B.V.（壳牌全球解决方案国际有限公司）
The versatility to learn from a handful of samples is the hallmark of human intelligence. Few-shot learning is an endeavour to transcend this capability down to machines. Inspired by the promise and power of probabilistic deep learning, we propose a novel variational inference network for few-shot classification (coined as TRIDENT) to decouple the representation of an image into semantic and label latent variables, and simultaneously infer them in an intertwined fashion. To induce task-awareness, as part of the inference mechanics of TRIDENT, we exploit information across both query and suppor…
College of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University（浙江大学信息科学与电子工程学院）；ZJU-League Research & Development Center（ZJU-League研发中心）；State Key Lab of CAD&CG, Zhejiang University（浙江大学CAD&CG国家重点实验室）
Few-shot learning (FSL) attempts to learn with limited data. In this work, we perform the feature extraction in the Euclidean space and the geodesic distance metric on the Oblique Manifold (OM). Specially, for better feature extraction, we propose a non-parametric Region Self-attention with Spatial Pyramid Pooling (RSSPP), which realizes a trade-off between the generalization and the discriminative ability of the single image feature. Then, we embed the feature to OM as a point. Furthermore, we design an Oblique Distance-based Classifier (ODC) that achieves classification in the tangent spaces…
Few-shot segmentation (FSS) expects models trained on base classes to work on novel classes with the help of a few support images. However, when there exists a domain gap between the base and novel classes, the state-of-the-art FSS methods may even fail to segment simple objects. To improve their performance on unseen domains, we propose to transductively fine-tune the base model on a set of query images under the few-shot setting, where the core idea is to implicitly guide the segmentation of query images using support labels. Although different images are not directly comparable, their class…
University of Electronic Science and Technology of China（电子科技大学）；Southwestern University of Finance and Economics（西南财经大学）
Semantic segmentation, which aims to acquire a detailed understanding of images, is an essential issue in computer vision. However, in practical scenarios, new categories that are different from the categories in training usually appear. Since it is impractical to collect labeled data for all categories, how to conduct zero-shot learning in semantic segmentation establishes an important problem. Although the attribute embedding of categories can promote effective knowledge transfer across different categories, the prediction of segmentation network reveals obvious bias to seen categories. In t…
College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang University（浙江大学计算机科学与技术学院）；Arizona State University（亚利桑那州立大学）；Alibaba Group（阿里巴巴集团）
Most existing Zero-Shot Learning (ZSL) methods have the strong bias problem, in which instances of unseen (target) classes tend to be categorized as one of the seen (source) classes. So they yield poor performance after being deployed in the generalized ZSL settings. In this paper, we propose a straightforward yet effective method named Quasi-Fully Supervised Learning (QFSL) to alleviate the bias problem. Our method follows the way of transductive learning, which assumes that both the labeled source images and unlabeled target images are available for training. In the semantic embedding space,…
The challenge in few-shot learning is that available data is not enough to capture the underlying distribution. To mitigate this, two emerging directions are (a) using local image representations, essentially multiplying the amount of data by a constant factor, and (b) using more unlabeled data, for instance by transductive inference, jointly on a number of queries. In this work, we bring these two ideas together, introducing \emph{local propagation}. We treat local image features as independent examples, we build a graph on them and we use it to propagate both the features themselves and the …
Zero-shot Learning (ZSL) is a transfer learning technique which aims at transferring knowledge from seen classes to unseen classes. This knowledge transfer is possible because of underlying semantic space which is common to seen and unseen classes. Most existing approaches learn a projection function using labelled seen class data which maps visual data to semantic data. In this work, we propose a shallow but effective neural network-based model for learning such a projection function which aligns the visual and semantic data in the latent space while simultaneously making the latent space emb…
Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia（意大利技术研究院）；University of Genova（热那亚大学）；Huawei Technologies Ltd., Ireland Research Center（华为技术有限公司爱尔兰研究中心）；University of Verona（维罗纳大学）
In this paper, we address zero-shot learning (ZSL), the problem of recognizing categories for which no labeled visual data are available during training. We focus on the transductive setting, in which unlabelled visual data from unseen classes is available. State-of-the-art paradigms in ZSL typically exploit generative adversarial networks to synthesize visual features from semantic attributes. We posit that the main limitation of these approaches is to adopt a single model to face two problems: 1) generating realistic visual features, and 2) translating semantic attributes into visual cues. D…
National Laboratory of Pattern Recognition, CASIA（中国科学院自动化研究所模式识别国家重点实验室）；USTC（中国科学技术大学）
Transductive Zero-shot learning (ZSL) targets to recognize the unseen categories by aligning the visual and semantic information in a joint embedding space. There exist four kinds of domain biases in Transductive ZSL, i.e., visual bias and semantic bias between two domains and two visual-semantic biases in respective seen and unseen domains, but existing work only focuses on the part of them, which leads to severe semantic ambiguity during the knowledge transfer. To solve the above problem, we propose a novel Attribute-Induced Bias Eliminating (AIBE) module for Transductive ZSL. Specifically, …
As an important and challenging problem in computer vision, zero-shot learning (ZSL) aims at automatically recognizing the instances from unseen object classes without training data. To address this problem, ZSL is usually carried out in the following two aspects: 1) capturing the domain distribution connections between seen classes data and unseen classes data; and 2) modeling the semantic interactions between the image feature space and the label embedding space. Motivated by these observations, we propose a bidirectional mapping based semantic relationship modeling scheme that seeks for cro…
Learning Cross-domain Semantic-Visual Relationships for Transductive Zero-Shot Learning
Southwest Jiaotong University（西南交通大学）；University of Electronic Science and Technology of China（电子科技大学）；Chongqing University（重庆大学）；Guangzhou University（广州大学）
Transductive inference is widely used in few-shot learning, as it leverages the statistics of the unlabeled query set of a few-shot task, typically yielding substantially better performances than its inductive counterpart. The current few-shot benchmarks use perfectly class-balanced tasks at inference. We argue that such an artificial regularity is unrealistic, as it assumes that the marginal label probability of the testing samples is known and fixed to the uniform distribution. In fact, in realistic scenarios, the unlabeled query sets come with arbitrary and unknown label marginals. We intro…
The number of categories for action recognition is growing rapidly and it has become increasingly hard to label sufficient training data for learning conventional models for all categories. Instead of collecting ever more data and labelling them exhaustively for all categories, an attractive alternative approach is zero-shot learning" (ZSL). To that end, in this study we construct a mapping between visual features and a semantic descriptor of each action category, allowing new categories to be recognised in the absence of any visual training data. Existing ZSL studies focus primarily on still …
Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院自动化研究所）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院大学）；Taiyuan University of Science and Technology（太原科技大学）；Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院脑科学与智能技术卓越创新中心）
In zero-shot learning (ZSL) community, it is generally recognized that transductive learning performs better than inductive one as the unseen-class samples are also used in its training stage. How to generate pseudo labels for unseen-class samples and how to use such usually noisy pseudo labels are two critical issues in transductive learning. In this work, we introduce an iterative co-training framework which contains two different base ZSL models and an exchanging module. At each iteration, the two different ZSL models are co-trained to separately predict pseudo labels for the unseen-class s…
Zero-shot Hashing (ZSH) is to learn hashing models for novel/target classes without training data, which is an important and challenging problem. Most existing ZSH approaches exploit transfer learning via an intermediate shared semantic representations between the seen/source classes and novel/target classes. However, due to having disjoint, the hash functions learned from the source dataset are biased when applied directly to the target classes. In this paper, we study the transductive ZSH, i.e., we have unlabeled data for novel classes. We put forward a simple yet efficient joint learning ap…
Transductive zero-shot learning (T-ZSL) which could alleviate the domain shift problem in existing ZSL works, has received much attention recently. However, an open problem in T-ZSL: how to effectively make use of unseen-class samples for training, still remains. Addressing this problem, we first empirically analyze the roles of unseen-class samples with different degrees of hardness in the training process based on the uneven prediction phenomenon found in many ZSL methods, resulting in three observations. Then, we propose two hardness sampling approaches for selecting a subset of diverse and…
Beam AI；University of British Columbia（不列颠哥伦比亚大学）；MILA（蒙特利尔学习算法研究所）；Vector Institute（向量研究所）；University of Amsterdam（阿姆斯特丹大学）；Inverted AI；Northeastern University（东北大学）；Google Research（谷歌研究院）；CIFAR（加拿大高等研究院）；Amazon（亚马逊）
Modern deep learning requires large-scale extensively labelled datasets for training. Few-shot learning aims to alleviate this issue by learning effectively from few labelled examples. In previously proposed few-shot visual classifiers, it is assumed that the feature manifold, where classifier decisions are made, has uncorrelated feature dimensions and uniform feature variance. In this work, we focus on addressing the limitations arising from this assumption by proposing a variance-sensitive class of models that operates in a low-label regime. The first method, Simple CNAPS, employs a hierarch…
We introduce Transductive Infomation Maximization (TIM) for few-shot learning. Our method maximizes the mutual information between the query features and their label predictions for a given few-shot task, in conjunction with a supervision loss based on the support set. Furthermore, we propose a new alternating-direction solver for our mutual-information loss, which substantially speeds up transductive-inference convergence over gradient-based optimization, while yielding similar accuracy. TIM inference is modular: it can be used on top of any base-training feature extractor. Following standard…
City University of Hong Kong（香港城市大学）；Microsoft Cloud+AI（微软云与人工智能部门）；PCG, Tencent（腾讯平台与内容事业群）；Shenzhen University（深圳大学）；NLPR, CASIA（中国科学院自动化研究所模式识别国家重点实验室）；Deepwise AI Lab（深睿人工智能实验室）
To recognize objects of the unseen classes, most existing Zero-Shot Learning(ZSL) methods first learn a compatible projection function between the common semantic space and the visual space based on the data of source seen classes, then directly apply it to the target unseen classes. However, in real scenarios, the data distribution between the source and target domain might not match well, thus causing the well-known \textbf{domain shift} problem. Based on the observation that visual features of test instances can be separated into different clusters, we propose a new visual structure constra…
University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学）；Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院自动化研究所）；Nanjing University（南京大学）
Zero-shot learning (ZSL) aims to recognize unseen classes by generalizing the relation between visual features and semantic attributes learned from the seen classes. A recent paradigm called transductive zero-shot learning further leverages unlabeled unseen data during training and has obtained impressive results. These methods always synthesize unseen features from attributes through a generative adversarial network to mitigate the bias towards seen classes. However, they neglect the semantic information in the unlabeled unseen data and thus fail to generate high-fidelity attribute-consistent…
Improved Feature Generating Framework for Transductive Zero-shot Learning
University of Liverpool（利物浦大学）；Westlake University（西湖大学）；Mohamed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence（穆罕默德·本·扎耶德人工智能大学）；Duke Kunshan University（昆山杜克大学）
Transductive Few-Shot learning has gained increased attention nowadays considering the cost of data annotations along with the increased accuracy provided by unlabelled samples in the domain of few shot. Especially in Few-Shot Classification (FSC), recent works explore the feature distributions aiming at maximizing likelihoods or posteriors with respect to the unknown parameters. Following this vein, and considering the parallel between FSC and clustering, we seek for better taking into account the uncertainty in estimation due to lack of data, as well as better statistical properties of the c…
UNEM: UNrolled Generalized EM for Transductive Few-Shot Learning
Politecnico di Milano（米兰理工大学）；Université Paris-Saclay（巴黎萨克雷大学）；ÉTS Montréal（蒙特利尔工程学院）；Université Sorbonne Paris Nord（巴黎北索邦大学）；CentraleSupélec（中央高等电力学院）；Inria（法国国家信息与自动化研究所）
Few-shot learning, which aims at extracting new concepts rapidly from extremely few examples of novel classes, has been featured into the meta-learning paradigm recently. Yet, the key challenge of how to learn a generalizable classifier with the capability of adapting to specific tasks with severely limited data still remains in this domain. To this end, we propose a Transductive Episodic-wise Adaptive Metric (TEAM) framework for few-shot learning, by integrating the meta-learning paradigm with both deep metric learning and transductive inference. With exploring the pairwise constraints and re…
In this paper, we present a new method, Transductive Multi-Head Few-Shot learning (TMHFS), to address the Cross-Domain Few-Shot Learning (CD-FSL) challenge. The TMHFS method extends the Meta-Confidence Transduction (MCT) and Dense Feature-Matching Networks (DFMN) method [2] by introducing a new prediction head, i.e, an instance-wise global classification network based on semantic information, after the common feature embedding network. We train the embedding network with the multiple heads, i.e,, the MCT loss, the DFMN loss and the semantic classifier loss, simultaneously in the source domain.…
Zero-shot learning (ZSL) endows the computer vision system with the inferential capability to recognize instances of a new category that has never seen before. Two fundamental challenges in it are visual-semantic embedding and domain adaptation in cross-modality learning and unseen class prediction steps, respectively. To address both challenges, this paper presents two corresponding methods named Adaptive STructural Embedding (ASTE) and Self-PAsed Selective Strategy (SPASS), respectively. Specifically, ASTE formulates the visualsemantic interactions in a latent structural SVM framework to ada…
Recently, zero-shot learning (ZSL) has received increasing interest. The key idea underpinning existing ZSL approaches is to exploit knowledge transfer via an intermediate-level semantic representation which is assumed to be shared between the auxiliary and target datasets, and is used to bridge between these domains for knowledge transfer. The semantic representation used in existing approaches varies from visual attributes to semantic word vectors and semantic relatedness. However, the overall pipeline is similar: a projection mapping low-level features to the semantic representation is lear…
Wuhan University（武汉大学）；Sun Yat-Sen University（中山大学）；University of South Carolina（南卡罗来纳大学）
Hash coding has been widely used in approximate nearest neighbor search for large-scale image retrieval. Given semantic annotations such as class labels and pairwise similarities of the training data, hashing methods can learn and generate effective and compact binary codes. While some newly introduced images may contain undefined semantic labels, which we call unseen images, zeor-shot hashing techniques have been studied. However, existing zeor-shot hashing methods focus on the retrieval of single-label images, and cannot handle multi-label images. In this paper, for the first time, a novel t…
University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学）；The University of Manchester（曼彻斯特大学）
It is well-known that zero-shot learning (ZSL) can suffer severely from the problem of domain shift, where the true and learned data distributions for the unseen classes do not match. Although transductive ZSL (TZSL) attempts to improve this by allowing the use of unlabelled examples from the unseen classes, there is still a high level of distribution shift. We propose a novel TZSL model (named as Bi-VAEGAN), which largely improves the shift by a strengthened distribution alignment between the visual and auxiliary spaces. The key proposal of the model design includes (1) a bi-directional distr…
We investigate a general formulation for clustering and transductive few-shot learning, which integrates prototype-based objectives, Laplacian regularization and supervision constraints from a few labeled data points. We propose a concave-convex relaxation of the problem, and derive a computationally efficient block-coordinate bound optimizer, with convergence guarantee. At each iteration,our optimizer computes independent (parallel) updates for each point-to-cluster assignment. Therefore, it could be trivially distributed for large-scale clustering and few-shot tasks. Furthermore, we provides…
ÉTS Montreal（蒙特利尔高等技术学院）；CentraleSupélec（巴黎中央理工-高等电力学院）；CNRS（法国国家科学研究中心）；Université Paris Saclay（巴黎萨克雷大学）；Laboratoire des Signaux et Systèmes（信号与系统实验室）
We introduce Transductive Infomation Maximization (TIM) for few-shot learning. Our method maximizes the mutual information between the query features and their label predictions for a given few-shot task, in conjunction with a supervision loss based on the support set. We motivate our transductive loss by deriving a formal relation between the classification accuracy and mutual-information maximization. Furthermore, we propose a new alternating-direction solver, which substantially speeds up transductive inference over gradient-based optimization, while yielding competitive accuracy. We also p…
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)（韩国科学技术院）
We propose unsupervised embedding adaptation for the downstream few-shot classification task. Based on findings that deep neural networks learn to generalize before memorizing, we develop Early-Stage Feature Reconstruction (ESFR) -- a novel adaptation scheme with feature reconstruction and dimensionality-driven early stopping that finds generalizable features. Incorporating ESFR consistently improves the performance of baseline methods on all standard settings, including the recently proposed transductive method. ESFR used in conjunction with the transductive method further achieves state-of-t…
Laboratoire d’Informatique de Paris 6（巴黎第六计算机实验室）；Criteo AI Lab（科韬人工智能实验室）
In Computer Vision, Zero-Shot Learning (ZSL) aims at classifying unseen classes -- classes for which no matching training image exists. Most of ZSL works learn a cross-modal mapping between images and class labels for seen classes. However, the data distribution of seen and unseen classes might differ, causing a domain shift problem. Following this observation, transductive ZSL (T-ZSL) assumes that unseen classes and their associated images are known during training, but not their correspondence. As current T-ZSL approaches do not scale efficiently when the number of seen classes is high, we t…
Zero-shot learning has received increasing interest as a means to alleviate the often prohibitive expense of annotating training data for large scale recognition problems. These methods have achieved great success via learning intermediate semantic representations in the form of attributes and more recently, semantic word vectors. However, they have thus far been constrained to the single-label case, in contrast to the growing popularity and importance of more realistic multi-label data. In this paper, for the first time, we investigate and formalise a general framework for multi-label zero-sh…
University of Science and Technology of China（中国科学技术大学）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院大学）；The Second Academy of CASIC（中国航天科工集团第二研究院）
Recently, the transductive graph-based methods have achieved great success in the few-shot classification task. However, most existing methods ignore exploring the class-level knowledge that can be easily learned by humans from just a handful of samples. In this paper, we propose an Explicit Class Knowledge Propagation Network (ECKPN), which is composed of the comparison, squeeze and calibration modules, to address this problem. Specifically, we first employ the comparison module to explore the pairwise sample relations to learn rich sample representations in the instance-level graph. Then, we…
Imperial College London（帝国理工学院）；Inria（法国国家信息与自动化研究所）；Univ Rennes（雷恩大学）；CNRS（法国国家科学研究中心）；IRISA（法国雷恩信息与自动化系统研究所）
Few-shot learning amounts to learning representations and acquiring knowledge such that novel tasks may be solved with both supervision and data being limited. Improved performance is possible by transductive inference, where the entire test set is available concurrently, and semi-supervised learning, where more unlabeled data is available. Focusing on these two settings, we introduce a new algorithm that leverages the manifold structure of the labeled and unlabeled data distribution to predict pseudo-labels, while balancing over classes and using the loss value distribution of a limited-capac…
CAI, University of Technology Sydney（悉尼科技大学CAI）；University of Oxford（牛津大学）；AITRICS；KAIST（韩国科学技术院）；Baidu Research（百度研究院）
The goal of few-shot learning is to learn a classifier that generalizes well even when trained with a limited number of training instances per class. The recently introduced meta-learning approaches tackle this problem by learning a generic classifier across a large number of multiclass classification tasks and generalizing the model to a new task. Yet, even with such meta-learning, the low-data problem in the novel classification task still remains. In this paper, we propose Transductive Propagation Network (TPN), a novel meta-learning framework for transductive inference that classifies the …
Disney Research（迪士尼研究院）；Queen Mary University of London（伦敦玛丽女王大学）
Most existing zero-shot learning approaches exploit transfer learning via an intermediate-level semantic representation shared between an annotated auxiliary dataset and a target dataset with different classes and no annotation. A projection from a low-level feature space to the semantic representation space is learned from the auxiliary dataset and is applied without adaptation to the target dataset. In this paper we identify two inherent limitations with these approaches. First, due to having disjoint and potentially unrelated classes, the projection functions learned from the auxiliary data…
