We use Milky Way-like chemodynamical simulations with a new treatment for dust destruction and growth to investigate how these two processes affect the properties of the interstellar medium in galaxies. We focus on the role of two specific parameters: f_des (a new parameter that determines the fraction of dust destroyed in a single gas particle surrounding supernova) and C_s (the probability that a metal atom or ion sticks to the dust grain after colliding, i.e., the sticking coefficient) in regulating the amount and distribution of dust, cold gas and metals in galaxies. We find that simulated galaxies with low f_des and/or high C_s values produce not only more dust, but they also have a shallower correlation between dust surface density and total gas surface density, and a steeper correlation between dust-to-gas ratio and metallicity. Only for values of f_des between 0.01 and 0.02, and of C_s between 0.5 and 1 our simulations produce an average slope of the dust-to-gas ratio versus metallicity relation consistent with observations. f_des values correspond to a range of a total fraction of dust destroyed by a single supernova between 0.42 and 0.44. Lastly, we compare predictions of several simulations (with different star formation recipes, gas fractions, central metallicities, and metallicity gradients) to the spatially resolved M101 galaxy, and conclude that metallicity is the primary driver of the spatial distribution of dust, while dust-to-gas ratio controls the cold gas distribution, as it regulates the atomic-to-molecular hydrogen conversion rate.
The ratio of the mass of interstellar dust to the total mass of metals (the dust-to-metals/DTM ratio) tends to increase with metallicity. This can be explained by the increasing efficiency of grain growth in the interstellar medium (ISM) at higher metallicities, with a corollary being that the low DTM ratios seen at low metallicities are due to inefficient stellar dust production. This interpretation assumes that the efficiency of dust destruction in the ISM is constant, whereas it might be expected to increase at low metallicity; the decreased cooling efficiency of low-metallicity gas should …
Supernova generated shock waves are responsible for most of the destruction of dust grains in the interstellar medium (ISM). Calculations of the dust destruction timescale have so far been carried out using plane parallel steady shocks, however that approximation breaks down when the destruction timescale becomes longer than that for the evolution of the supernova remnant (SNR) shock. In this paper we present new calculations of grain destruction in evolving, radiative SNRs. To facilitate comparison with the previous study by Jones et al. (1996), we adopt the same dust properties as in that pa…
Dust destruction by supernovae is one of the main processes removing dust from the interstellar medium (ISM). Estimates of the efficiency of this process, both theoretical and observational, typically assume a shock propagating into a homogeneous medium, whereas the ISM possesses significant substructure in reality. We self-consistently model the dust and gas properties of the shocked ISM in three supernova remnants (SNRs), using X-ray and infrared (IR) data combined with corresponding emission models. Collisional heating by gas with properties derived from X-ray observations produces dust tem…
Core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) produce large ($\gtrsim 0.1 \, {\rm M}_\odot$) masses of dust, and are potentially the primary source of dust in the Universe, but much of this dust may be destroyed before reaching the interstellar medium. Cassiopeia A (Cas A) is the only supernova remnant where an observational measurement of the dust destruction efficiency in the reverse shock is possible at present. We determine the pre- and post-shock dust masses in Cas A using a substantially improved dust emission model. In our preferred models, the unshocked ejecta contains $0.6-0.8 \, {\rm M}_\odot$ of…
The nature, composition, abundance, and size distribution of dust in galaxies is determined by the rate at which it is created in the different stellar sources and destroyed by interstellar shocks. Because of their extensive wavelength coverage, proximity, and nearly face-on geometry, the Magellanic Clouds (MCs) provide a unique opportunity to study these processes in great detail. In this paper we use the complete sample of supernova remnants (SNRs) in the MCs to calculate the lifetime and destruction efficiencies of silicate and carbon dust in these galaxies. We find dust lifetimes of 22 +- …
From integral field data we extract the optical spectra of 20 shocked clouds in the supernova remnant N132D in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). Using self-consistent shock modelling, we derive the shock velocity, pre-shock cloud density and shock ram pressure in these clouds. We show that the [Fe X] and [Fe XIV] emission arises in faster, partially radiative shocks moving through the lower density gas near the periphery of the clouds. In these shocks dust has been effectively destroyed, while in the slower cloud shocks the dust destruction is incomplete until the recombination zone of the sho…
Supernova remnant (SNR) shock waves are the main place where interstellar dust grains are destroyed. However, the dust destruction efficiency in non-radiative shocks is still not well known. One way to estimate the fraction of dust destroyed is to compare the difference between postshock gas abundances and preshock medium total abundances when the preshock elemental depletion factors are known. We compare the postshock gas abundances of 16 SNRs in Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) with the LMC interstellar medium abundances that we derived based on 69 slow-rotating early B-type stars. We find that,…
Observed extinction curves of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are significantly different from those observed in the Milky Way. The observations require preferential removal of small grains at the AGN environment; however, the physics for this remains unclear. In this paper, we propose that dust destruction by charging, or Coulomb explosion, may be responsible for AGN extinction curves. Harsh AGN radiation makes a dust grain highly charged through photoelectric emission, and grain fission via the Coulomb explosion occurs when the electrostatic tensile stress of a charge grain exceeds its tensile…
We present results of a complete integral field survey of the bright SNR N49 in the LMC, obtained with the WiFeS instrument mounted on the ANU 2.3m telescope at Siding Spring Observatory. From theoretical shock modelling with the new MAPPINGS 5.1 code we have, for the first time, subjected the optical Fe emission line spectrum of a supernova remnant to a detailed abundance and dynamical analysis covering 8 separate stages of ionisation. This allows us to derive the dust depletion factors as a function of ionisation stage. We have shown that there is substantial (30% - 90%) destruction of Fe-be…
Possible saturation of betatron acceleration of dust particles behind strong shock fronts from supernovae is considered. It is argued that the efficiency of the nonthermal dust destruction should be substantially lower than the value estimated from a traditional description of betatron acceleration of dust grains behind radiative shock waves. The inhibition of the nonthermal destruction can be connected with the mirror instability developed in the dust component behind strong shocks with the velocity 3 times exceeding the Alfvén speed. The instability develops on characteristic time scales muc…
By means of 3-D hydrodynamical simulations, here we evaluate the impact that supernova explosions occurring within wind-driven bubbles have on the survival or destruction of dust grains. We consider both, the dust generated within the ejecta and the dust initially present in the ambient gas and later locked-up in the surrounding wind-driven shell. The collision of the supernova blast wave with the wind-driven shell leads to a transmitted shock that moves into the shell and a reflected shock into the ejecta. The transmitted shock is capable of destroying large amounts of the dust locked in the …
We introduce a model for the explicit evolution of interstellar dust in a cosmological galaxy formation simulation. We post-process a simulation from the Cosmic Reionization on Computers project (CROC, Gnedin 2014), integrating an ordinary differential equation for the evolution of the dust-to-gas ratio along pathlines in the simulation sampled with a tracer particle technique. This model incorporates the effects of dust grain production in asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star winds and supernovae (SN), grain growth due to the accretion of heavy elements from the gas phase of the interstellar me…
Dust grains are sputtered away in the hot gas behind shock fronts in supernova remnants, gradually enriching the gas phase with refractory elements. We have measured emission in C IV $λ$1550 from C atoms sputtered from dust in the gas behind a non-radiative shock wave in the northern Cygnus Loop. Overall, the intensity observed behind the shock agrees approximately with predictions from model calculations that match the Spitzer 24 micron and the X-ray intensity profiles. Thus these observations confirm the overall picture of dust destruction in SNR shocks and the sputtering rates used in model…
Recent mid-infrared high spatial resolution observations have revealed that active galactic nuclei (AGNs) may host a polar dust region with the size of several pc, and such dust may be carried by radiation from the central engine. The polar dust emission often exhibits very weak or absence of the silicate 10-$μ$m emission feature. A possible explanation is that the polar dust is dominated by micron-sized large grains because these grains do not show the silicate feature, while it remains unclear how large grains are preferentially supplied to the polar region. We here propose a new scenario de…
We present a numerical tool Shiva designed to simulate the dust destruction in warm neutral, warm ionized, and hot ionized media under the influence of photo-processing, sputtering, and shattering. The tool is designed primarily to study the evolution of hydrogenated amorphous carbons (HACs), but options to simulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), silicate and graphite grains are also implemented. HAC grain photo-processing includes both dehydrogenation and carbon atom loss. Dehydrogenation leads to material transformation from aliphatic to aromatic structure. Simultaneously, some oth…
We perform smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations of an isolated galaxy with a new treatment for dust formation and destruction. To this aim, we treat dust and metal production self-consistently with star formation and supernova feedback. For dust, we consider a simplified model of grain size distribution by representing the entire range of grain sizes with large and small grains. We include dust production in stellar ejecta, dust destruction by supernova (SN) shocks, grain growth by accretion and coagulation, and grain disruption by shattering. We find that the assumption of fixed …
We develop one-zone galaxy formation models in the early Universe, taking into account dust formation and evolution by supernova (SN) explosions. Especially we focus on the time evolution of dust size distribution, because ${\rm H}_{2}$ formation on the dust surface plays a critical role in the star formation process in the early Universe. In the model we assume that star formation rate (SFR) is proportional to the total amount of ${\rm H}_{2}$. We consistently treat (i) the formation and size evolution of dust, (ii) the chemical reaction networks including ${\rm H}_{2}$ formation both on the …
The generation of infrared (IR) radiation and the observed IR intensity distribution at wavelengths of 8, 24, and 100 micron in the ionized hydrogen region around a young, massive star is investigated. The evolution of the HII region is treated using a self-consistent chemical-dynamical model in which three dust populations are included -- large silicate grains, small graphite grains, and polycyclic, aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A radiative transfer model taking into account stochastic heating of small grains and macromolecules is used to model the IR spectral energy distribution. The computa…
Dust destruction in bubbles driven by multiple supernovae explosions
Lebedev Physical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences（列别捷夫物理研究所，俄罗斯科学院）；Department of Physical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER)（印度科学教育与研究学院物理科学系）
We present a long-slit spectroscopic analysis of Herbig-Haro 202 and the surrounding gas of the Orion Nebula using data from the Very Large Telescope. Given the characteristics of the Orion Nebula, it is the ideal object to study the mechanisms that play a role in the evolution of H II regions, notably dust destruction by interstellar shocks, which is a poorly understood subject. The use of long-slit allowed us to determine the spatial variation in its physical conditions and chemical abundances observing a broad area of the Orion Nebula; our results are consistent with those from previous stu…
Quantifying the efficiency of dust destruction in the interstellar medium (ISM) due to supernovae (SNe) is crucial for the understanding of galactic dust evolution. We present 3D hydrodynamic simulations of an SN blast wave propagating through the ISM. The interaction between the forward shock of the remnant and the surrounding ISM leads to destruction of ISM dust by the shock heated gas. We consider the dust processing due to ion sputtering, accretion of atoms/molecules and grain-grain collisions. Using 2D slices from the simulation timeseries, we apply post-processing calculations using the …
Modeling Dust Production, Growth, and Destruction in Reionization-Era Galaxies with the CROC Simulations II: Predicting the Dust Content of High-Redshift Galaxies
Dust is a key component of the Universe, especially regarding galaxies evolution, playing an essential role for both the physics and chemistry of the interstellar medium. In this paper, we give a brief review of interstellar dust. We describe the main dust observables and how it allows us to constrain dust properties. We discuss the dust lifecycle and the dust evolution in the ISM. We also present a physical dust model, DustEM.
The low density interstellar medium (ISM) close to the Sun and inside of the heliosphere provides a unique laboratory for studying interstellar dust grains. Grain characteristics in the nearby ISM are obtained from observations of interstellar gas and dust inside of the heliosphere and the interstellar gas towards nearby stars. Comparison between the gas composition and solar abundances suggests that grains are dominated by olivines and possibly some form of iron oxide. Measurements of the interstellar Ne/O ratio by the Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft indicate that a high fraction of…
Here we introduce the interstellar dust modelling framework THEMIS (The Heterogeneous dust Evolution Model for Interstellar Solids), which takes a global view of dust and its evolution in response to the local conditions in interstellar media. This approach is built upon a core model that was developed to explain the dust extinction and emission in the diffuse interstellar medium. The model was then further developed to self-consistently include the effects of dust evolution in the transition to denser regions. The THEMIS approach is under continuous development and currently we are extending …
Observations of the ejecta of core-collapse supernovae have shown that dust grains form in over-dense gas clumps in the expanding ejecta. The clumps are later subject to the passage of the reverse shock and a significant amount of the newly formed dust material can be destroyed due to the high temperatures and high velocities in the post-shock gas. To determine dust survival rates, we have performed a set of hydrodynamic simulations using the grid-based code AstroBEAR in order to model a shock wave interacting with a clump of gas and dust. Afterwards, dust motions and dust destruction rates ar…
Following our previous work, we investigate through hydrodynamic simulations the destruction of newly-formed dust grains by sputtering in the reverse shocks of supernova remnants. Using an idealized setup of a planar shock impacting a dense, spherical clump, we implant a population of Lagrangian particles into the clump to represent a distribution of dust grains in size and composition. We vary the relative velocity between the reverse shock and ejecta clump to explore the effects of shock-heating and cloud compression. Because supernova ejecta will be metal-enriched, we consider gas metallici…
We investigate through hydrodynamic simulations the destruction of newly-formed dust grains by sputtering in the reverse shocks of supernova remnants. Using an idealized setup of a planar shock impacting a dense, spherical clump, we implant a population of Lagrangian particles into the clump to represent a distribution of dust grains in size and composition. We then post-process the simulation output to calculate the grain sputtering for a variety of species and size distributions. We explore the parameter space appropriate for this problem by altering the over-density of the ejecta clumps and…
To investigate the evolution of dust in a cosmological volume, we perform hydrodynamic simulations, in which the enrichment of metals and dust is treated self-consistently with star formation and stellar feedback. We consider dust evolution driven by dust production in stellar ejecta, dust destruction by sputtering, grain growth by accretion and coagulation, and grain disruption by shattering, and treat small and large grains separately to trace the grain size distribution. After confirming that our model nicely reproduces the observed relation between dust-to-gas ratio and metallicity for nea…
We present a synthesis of the astronomical observations constraining the wavelength-dependent extinction, emission, and polarization from interstellar dust from UV to microwave wavelengths on diffuse Galactic sightlines. Representative solid phase abundances for those sightlines are also derived. Given the sensitive new observations of polarized dust emission provided by the Planck satellite, we place particular emphasis on dust polarimetry, including continuum polarized extinction, polarization in the carbonaceous and silicate spectroscopic features, the wavelength-dependent polarization frac…
New SiS destruction and formation routes via neutral-neutral reactions and their fundamental role in interstellar clouds at low and high metallicity values
Dust grains may be accelerated to relativistic speeds by radiation pressure, diffusive shocks, and other acceleration mechanisms. Such relativistic grains have been suggested as primary particles of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays (UHECRs). In this paper, we first revisit the problem of acceleration by radiation pressure and calculate maximum grain velocities achieved. We find that grains can be accelerated to relativistic speeds with Lorentz factor $γ< 2$ by powerful radiation sources, which is lower than earlier estimates showing that $γ$ could reach $\sim 10$. We then investigate different des…
Recent analyses of ${\it Herschel}$ observations suggest that in nearby disc galaxies the dust mass opacity at $500 \, {\rm μm}$, $κ_{500}$, decreases with increasing gas surface density, $Σ_{\rm ISM}$ (Clark et al. 2019). This apparent anti-correlation between $κ_{500}$ and $Σ_{\rm ISM}$ is opposite to the behaviour expected from theoretical dust evolution models; in such models, dust in denser, cooler regions (i.e. regions of increased $Σ_{\rm ISM}$) tends to grow and therefore to have increased $κ_{500}$. We show, using a toy model, that the presence of a range of dust temperatures along th…
The construction of viable and physically-realistic interstellar dust models is only possible if the constraints imposed by laboratory data on interstellar dust analogue materials are respected and used within a meaningful theoretical framework. These physical dust models can then be directly compared to observations without the need for any tuning to fit the observations. Such models will generally fail to achieve the excellent fits to observations that empirical models are able to achieve. However, the physically-realistic approach will necessarily lead to a deeper insight and a fuller under…
Clustering and dynamics of nano-sized particles (nano dust) is investigated using high-resolution ($1024^3$) simulations of compressible isothermal hydrodynamic turbulence, intended to mimic the conditions inside cold molecular clouds in the interstellar medium. Nano-sized grains may cluster in a turbulent flow (small-scale clustering), which increases the local grain density significantly. Together with the increased interaction rate due to turbulent motions, aggregation of interstellar nano-dust may be plausible.
This work is an attempt to tie together some of the, seemingly disparate, loose ends from the preceding papers in this series into the global view of dust evolution in the interstellar medium. In particular, the nature of the hydro-carbonaceous, infrared absorption and emission band carriers is discussed within the context of a simple poly- hexa-cyclic molecular view. The sequence of interstellar dust mantle accretion and grain- grain coagulation into aggregates, and their consequences for the interstellar dust size distribution, extinction and dust thermal emission, is explored. The effects o…
Dwarf spheroidal galaxies are among the most numerous galaxy population in the Universe, but their main formation and evolution channels are still not well understood. The three dwarf spheroidal satellites (NGC147, NGC185, and NGC205) of the Andromeda galaxy are characterised by very different interstellar medium (ISM) properties, which might suggest them being at different galaxy evolutionary stages. While the dust content of NGC205 has been studied in detail by De Looze et al. (2012), we present new Herschel dust continuum observations of NGC147 and NGC185. The non-detection of NGC147 in Her…
A quantitative interpretation of the observed relation between the interstellar linear polarization curve parameters $K$ and $λ_{\max}$ characterizing the width and the wavelength of a polarization maximum, respectively, is given. The observational data available for 57 stars located in the dark clouds in Taurus, Chamaeleon, around the stars $ρ$ Oph and R CrA are considered. The spheroidal particle model of interstellar dust grains earlier applied to simultaneously interpret the interstellar extinction and polarization curves in a wide spectral range is utilized. The observed trend $K \approx …
We study the destruction of interstellar dust via sputtering in supernova (SN) shocks using three-dimensional hydrodynamical simulations. With a novel numerical framework, we follow both sputtering and dust dynamics governed by direct collisions, plasma drag and betatron acceleration. Grain-grain collisions are not included and the grain-size distribution is assumed to be fixed. The amount of dust destroyed per SN is quantified for a broad range of ambient densities and fitting formulae are provided. Integrated over the grain-size distribution, nonthermal (inertial) sputtering dominates over t…
Observations have demonstrated that supernovae efficiently produce dust. This is consistent with the hypothesis that supernovae and asymptotic giant branch stars are the primary producers of dust in the Universe. However, there has been a longstanding question of how much of the dust detected in the interiors of young supernova remnants can escape into the interstellar medium. We present new hydrodynamical calculations of the evolution of dust grains that were formed in dense ejecta clumps within a Cas A-like remnant. We follow the dynamics of the grains as they decouple from the gas after the…
Elements in the interstellar medium (ISM) exist in the form of gas or dust. The interstellar extinction and elemental abundances provide crucial constraints on the composition, size and quantity of interstellar dust. Most of the extinction modeling efforts have assumed the total abundances (both in gas and in dust) of the dust-forming elements---known as the "interstellar abundances", the "interstellar reference abundances", or the "cosmic abundances"---to be solar and the gas-phase abundances to be independent of the interstellar environments. However, it remains unclear if the solar abundanc…
In this paper we consider the implications of the distributions of dust and metals in the disc of M31. We derive mean radial dust distributions using a dust map created from Herschel images of M31 sampling the entire far-infrared (FIR) peak. Modified blackbodies are fit to approximately 4000 pixels with a varying, as well as a fixed, dust emissivity index (beta). An overall metal distribution is also derived using data collected from the literature. We use a simple analytical model of the evolution of the dust in a galaxy with dust contributed by stellar sources and interstellar grain growth, …
Interstellar space hosts nanometre- to micron-sized dust grains. The carbonaceous-rich component of these grain populations emits in infrared bands, observed remotely for decades with telescopes and satellites. They are a key ingredient of astrochemical dust evolution. The precise carriers for most of these bands are still unknown and not well reproduced in the laboratory. In this work, we show the high-energy mechanochemical synthesis of disordered aromatic and aliphatic analogues provides interstellar relevant dust particles. The mechanochemical milling of carbon-based solids under a hydroge…
Interstellar dust and gas that enter the heliosphere provide us with important clues about both the heliosphere and the local interstellar medium (LISM). The picture we have of the Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC) from both \emph{in situ} detections and absorption line data presents questions that have important implications for the origins and evolution of the cloud. New detections of $^{60}$Fe on Earth in deep sea crusts and Antarctic snow cores provide evidence for the role of supernovae in shaping the LISM. We discuss our models for the evolution of the LIC inside the Local Bubble and possib…
Interstellar dust is a key physical ingredient of galaxies, obscuring star formation, regulating the heating and cooling of the gas, and building-up chemical complexity. In this manuscript, I give a wide review of interstellar dust properties and some of the modern techniques used to study it. I start with a general introduction presenting the main concepts, in molecular and solid-state physics, required to understand the contemporary literature on the subject. I then review the empirical evidence we currently use to constrain state-of-the-art dust models. Follows a long discussion about our c…
A model of key processes influencing the evolution of a hydrocarbon grain of an arbitrary size under astrophysical conditions corresponding to ionized hydrogen regions (HII regions) and supernova remnants is presented. The considered processes include aromatization and photodestruction, sputtering by electrons and ions, and shattering due to collisions between grains. The model can be used to simulate the grain size distribution and the aromatization degree during the evolution of HII regions and supernova remnants for a specified radiation field, relative velocity of gas and dust, etc. The co…
The origin and depletion of iron differ from all other abundant refractory elements that make up the composition of the interstellar dust. Iron is primarily synthesized in Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) and in core collapse supernovae (CCSN), and is present in the outflows from AGB stars. Only the latter two are observed to be sources of interstellar dust, since searches for dust in SN~Ia have provided strong evidence for the absence of any significant mass of dust in their ejecta. Consequently, more than 65% of the iron is injected into the ISM in gaseous form. Yet, ultraviolet and X-ray observa…
Using three dimensional Monte Carlo radiation transfer models of photoionisation and dust scattering, we explore different components of the widespread diffuse H$α$ emission observed in the interstellar medium of the Milky Way and other galaxies. We investigate the relative contributions of H$α$ from recombination emission in ionised gas and H$α$ that originates in H{\sc ii} regions near the Galactic midplane and scatters off high altitude dust in the diffuse interstellar medium. For the radiation transfer simulations we consider two geometries for the interstellar medium: a three dimensional …
Using over a million and a half extragalactic spectra we study the properties of the mysterious Diffuse Interstellar Bands (DIBs) in the Milky Way. These data provide us with an unprecedented sampling of the skies at high Galactic-latitude and low dust-column-density. We present our method, study the correlation of the equivalent width of 8 DIBs with dust extinction and with a few atomic species, and the distribution of four DIBs - 5780.6A, 5797.1A, 6204.3A, and 6613.6A - over nearly 15000 squared degrees. As previously found, DIBs strengths correlate with extinction and therefore inevitably w…
Many things in current interstellar dust studies are taken as well understood givens by much of the community. For example, it is widely held that interstellar dust is made up of only three components, i.e., astronomical silicates, graphite and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and that our understanding of these is now complete and sufficient enough to interpret astronomical observations of dust in galaxies. To zeroth order this is a reasonable approximation. However, while these three pillars of dust modelling have been useful in advancing our understanding over the last few decades, it is n…
Recent works have demonstrated a surprisingly small variation of the dust-to-metals ratio in different environments and a correlation between dust extinction and the density of stars. Naively, one would interpret these findings as strong evidence of cosmic dust being produced mainly by stars. But other observational evidence suggest there is a significant variation of the dust-to-metals ratio with metallicity. As we demonstrate in this paper, a simple star-dust scenario is problematic also in the sense that it requires that destruction of dust in the interstellar medium (e.g., due to passage o…
The origin of cosmic dust is a fundamental issue in planetary science. This paper revisits the origin of dust in galaxies, in particular, in the Milky Way, by using a chemical evolution model of a galaxy composed of stars, interstellar medium, metals (elements heavier than helium), and dust. We start from a review of time-evolutionary equations of the four components, and then, we present simple recipes for the stellar remnant mass and yields of metal and dust based on models of stellar nucleosynthesis and dust formation. After calibrating some model parameters with the data from the solar nei…
