Currently, blockchain proposals are being adopted to solve security issues, such as data integrity, resilience, and non-repudiation. To improve certain aspects, e.g., energy consumption and latency, of traditional blockchains, different architectures, algorithms, and data management methods have been recently proposed. For example, appendable-block blockchain uses a different data structure designed to reduce latency in block and transaction insertion. It is especially applicable in domains such as Internet of Things (IoT), where both latency and energy are key concerns. However, the lack of some features available to other blockchains, such as Smart Contracts, limits the application of this model. To solve this, in this work, we propose the use of Smart Contracts in appendable-block blockchain through a new model called context-based appendable-block blockchain. This model also allows the execution of multiple smart contracts in parallel, featuring high performance in parallel computing scenarios. Furthermore, we present an implementation for the context-based appendable-block blockchain using an Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). Finally, we execute this implementation in four different testbed. The results demonstrated a performance improvement for parallel processing of smart contracts when using the proposed model.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is transforming our physical world into a complex and dynamic system of connected devices on an unprecedented scale. Connecting everyday physical objects is creating new business models, improving processes and reducing costs and risks. Recently, blockchain technology has received a lot of attention from the community as a possible solution to overcome security issues in IoT. However, traditional blockchains (such as the ones used in Bitcoin and Ethereum) are not well suited to the resource-constrained nature of IoT devices and also with the large volume of informa…
Atomic Crosschain Transaction technology allows composable programming across private Ethereum blockchains. It allows for inter-contract and inter-blockchain function calls that are both synchronous and atomic: if one part fails, the whole call graph of function calls is rolled back. Traditional Ethereum contract functions can limit which accounts can call them by specialised application program logic. This is important as it allows application developers to specify which callers can execute functions that update contract state. In this paper we introduce the strategy required to restrict whic…
Cross-Blockchain communication has gained traction due to the increasing fragmentation of blockchain networks and scalability solutions such as side-chaining and sharding. With SmartSync, we propose a novel concept for cross-blockchain smart contract interactions that creates client contracts on arbitrary blockchain networks supporting the same execution environment. Client contracts mirror the logic and state of the original instance and enable seamless on-chain function executions providing recent states. Synchronized contracts supply instant read-only function calls to other applications ho…
The emerging blockchain technology supports decentralized computing paradigm shift and is a rapidly approaching phenomenon. While blockchain is thought primarily as the basis of Bitcoin, its application has grown far beyond cryptocurrencies due to the introduction of smart contracts. Smart contracts are self-enforcing pieces of software, which reside and run over a hosting blockchain. Using blockchain-based smart contracts for secure and transparent management to govern interactions (authentication, connection, and transaction) in Internet-enabled environments, mostly IoT, is a niche area of r…
Blockchain-based smart contract has become a growing field in the blockchain technology. What was once a technology used to solve digital transaction issues turns out to have some wider usage, including smart contract. The development of smart contract can be traced from the numerous platforms facilitating it, however the issue on how well each platform works as oppose to each other has yet been fully explored. The usage of smart contract can be seen from the applications that are built on top of the smart contract platform, such as the tokenization of real world to virtual world assets. Howev…
This chapter contributes to evolving the versatility and complexity of blockchain-enabled services through extending the functionality of blockchain-enforced smart contracts. The contributions include: (i) a method for automated management of contracts with hierarchical conditionality structures through an hierarchy of intelligent agents and the use of hierarchical cryptographic key-pairs; (ii) a method for efficient and secure matching and transfer of smart- contract underlyings (entities) among disparate smart contracts/subcontracts; (iii) a method for producing an hierarchy of common secret…
In this paper, we introduce Super Luminal ("xLumi"), a new payment channel protocol for blockchain systems. xLumi is a simple unidirectional payment channel that can be extended to a bidirectional payment channel or a complete network. xLumi guarantees the security of the payment channel's funds by using a simple set of mathematical rules that can be easily implemented on any blockchain with the necessary infrastructure. We also give the detailed implementation methods of this idea using V Systems contract systems in this paper.
This research critically analyses blockchain scaling solutions based on their ability to realistically balance the properties of the blockchain trilemma. We have concluded this research by outlining a gap in the current body of literature and implementation of scalability solutions. An extended UTXO transaction model is proposed to overcome challenges associated with implementing both layer one and layer two scaling solutions in a blockchain system. The examination of industry approaches is used to justify this direction and puts forth a basis for future work.
Transactions represent a fundamental component in blockchains as they are the primary means for users to change the blockchain state. Current blockchain systems such as Bitcoin and Ethereum require users to constantly observe the state changes of interest or the events taking place in a blockchain and requires the user to explicitly release the required transactions to respond to the observed events in the blockchain. This paper proposes EventWarden, a decentralized event-driven proxy service for users to outsource transactions in Ethereum-like blockchains. EventWarden employs a novel combinat…
An appealing feature of blockchain technology is smart contracts. A smart contract is executable code that runs on top of the blockchain to facilitate, execute and enforce an agreement between untrusted parties without the involvement of a trusted third party. In this paper, we conduct a systematic mapping study to collect all research that is relevant to smart contracts from a technical perspective. The aim of doing so is to identify current research topics and open challenges for future studies in smart contract research. We extract 24 papers from different scientific databases. The results …
Blockchain technology has evolved from being an immutable ledger of transactions for cryptocurrencies to a programmable interactive the environment for building distributed reliable applications. Although, blockchain technology has been used to address various challenges, to our knowledge none of the previous work focused on using blockchain to develop a secure and immutable scientific data provenance management framework that automatically verifies the provenance records. In this work, we leverage blockchain as a platform to facilitate trustworthy data provenance collection, verification, and…
Raziel combines secure multi-party computation and proof-carrying code to provide privacy, correctness and verifiability guarantees for smart contracts on blockchains. Effectively solving DAO and Gyges attacks, this paper describes an implementation and presents examples to demonstrate its practical viability (e.g., private and verifiable crowdfundings and investment funds). Additionally, we show how to use Zero-Knowledge Proofs of Proofs (i.e., Proof-Carrying Code certificates) to prove the validity of smart contracts to third parties before their execution without revealing anything else. Fi…
Blockchains and smart contracts are an emerging, promising technology, that has received considerable attention. We use the blockchain technology, and in particular Ethereum, to implement a large-scale event-based Internet of Things (IoT) control system. We argue that the distributed nature of the "ledger," as well as, Ethereum's capability of parallel execution of replicated "smart contracts", provide the sought after automation, generality, flexibility, resilience, and high availability. We design a realistic blockchain-based IoT architecture, using existing technologies while by taking into…
Smart contracts are applications that execute on blockchains. Today they manage billions of dollars in value and motivate visionary plans for pervasive blockchain deployment. While smart contracts inherit the availability and other security assurances of blockchains, however, they are impeded by blockchains' lack of confidentiality and poor performance. We present Ekiden, a system that addresses these critical gaps by combining blockchains with Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs). Ekiden leverages a novel architecture that separates consensus from execution, enabling efficient TEE-backed con…
Blockchain has been praised for its capacity to hold data in a decentralized and tamper-proof way. It also supports the execution of code through blockchain's smart contracts, adding automation of actions to the network with high trustability. However, as smart contracts are visible by anybody on the network, the business data and logic may be at risk, thus companies could be reluctant to use such technology. This paper aims to propose a pattern that allows the execution of automatable legal contract clauses, where its execution states are stored in an on-chain smart-contract and the logic nee…
The main problem faced by smart contract platforms is the amount of time and computational power required to reach consensus. In a classical blockchain model, each operation is in fact performed by each node, both to update the status and to validate the results of the calculations performed by others. In this short survey we sketch some state-of-the-art approaches to obtain an efficient and scalable computation of smart contracts. Particular emphasis is given to sharding, a promising method that allows parallelization and therefore a more efficient management of the computational resources of…
The abundance and rich varieties of data are enabling many transformative applications of big data analytics that have profound societal impacts. However, there are also increasing concerns regarding the improper use of individual data owner's private data. In this paper, we propose PrivacyGuard, a system that leverages blockchain smart contract and trusted execution environment (TEE) to enable individual's control over the access and usage of their private data. Smart contracts are used to specify data usage policy, i.e., who can use what data under which conditions and what analytics to perf…
Using blockchain technology, it is possible to create contracts that offer a reward in exchange for a trained machine learning model for a particular data set. This would allow users to train machine learning models for a reward in a trustless manner. The smart contract will use the blockchain to automatically validate the solution, so there would be no debate about whether the solution was correct or not. Users who submit the solutions won't have counterparty risk that they won't get paid for their work. Contracts can be created easily by anyone with a dataset, even programmatically by softwa…
Increased collaborative production and dynamic selection of production partners within industry 4.0 manufacturing leads to ever-increasing automatic data exchange between companies. Automatic and unsupervised data exchange creates new attack vectors, which could be used by a malicious insider to leak secrets via an otherwise considered secure channel without anyone noticing. In this paper we reflect upon approaches to prevent the exposure of secret data via blockchain technology, while also providing auditable proof of data exchange. We show that previous blockchain based privacy protection ap…
The proposed smart contract can prevent seven cyber attacks, such as Denial of Service (DoS), Man in the Middle Attack (MITM), Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS), 51\%, Injection attacks, Routing Attack, and Eclipse attack. The Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) consensus algorithm used in this model reduces the number of validators for each transaction which makes it suitable for lightweight applications. The timing complexity of key/certificate validation and signature/certificate revocation processes do not depend on the number of transactions. The comparisons of various timing parameters wi…
We reveal six zero-day social engineering attacks in Ethereum, and subdivide them into two classes: Address Manipulation and Homograph. We demonstrate the attacks by embedding them in source codes of five popular smart contracts with combined market capitalization of over \$29 billion, and show that the attacks have the ability to remain dormant during the testing phase and activate only after production deployment. We analyze 85,656 open source smart contracts and find 1,027 contracts that can be directly used for performing social engineering attacks. For responsible disclosure, we contact s…
Blockchain is a core technology to manage the value of cryptocurrencies, or to record trails of important business trades. The Smart Contract on blockchain is expected to improve security on blockchain system with automated operation, but it cannot be the solution when the application service required to operate tightly related blockchain ledgers as service business logic. This paper proposed the method to extend the functionality of traditional Smart Contract on blockchain, and introduced the prototype system, named 'ConnectionChain'.
Smart contracting protocols promise to regulate the transfer of cryptocurrency amongst participants in a trustless manner. A safe smart contract implementation should ensure that each participant can always append a contract transaction to the blockchain in order move the contract towards secure completion. To this goal, we propose Bitcoin Trace-Net, a contract verification framework which generates an executable symbolic model from the underlying contract implementation. A Trace-Net model consists of a Petri Net formalism enriched with a Dolev-Yao-like actor knowledge model. The explicit symb…
Despite technological advances, most smart objects in the Internet of Things (IoT) cannot be accessed using technologies designed and developed for interacting with powerful Internet servers. IoT use cases involve devices that not only have limited resources, but also they are not always connected to the Internet and are physically exposed to tampering. In this paper, we describe the design, development, and evaluation of a smart contract-based solution that allows end-users to securely interact with smart devices. Our approach enables access control, Thing authentication, and payments in a fu…
Over the last decade there has been a continuing decline in social trust on the part of individuals with regards to the handling and fair use of personal data, digital assets and other related rights in general. At the same time, there has been a change in the employment patterns for many people through the emergence of the gig economy. These gig workers include artists, songwriters and musicians in the music industry. We discuss the notion of the data cooperative with fiduciary responsibilities to its members, which is similar in purpose to credit unions in the financial sector. A data cooper…
We introduce the contract service provider (CSP) model as an analog of the successful Internet ISP model. Our exploration is motivated by the need to seek alternative blockchain service-fee models that departs from the token-for-operations (gas fee) model for smart contracts found on many popular blockchain platforms today. A given CSP community consisting of multiple CSP business entities (VASPs) form a contract domain which implement well-defined contract primitives, policies and contract-ledger. The nodes of the members of CSP community form the blockchain network. We discuss a number of de…
In the age of Big Data, enabling task scheduling while protecting users' privacy is critical for various decentralized applications in blockchain-based smart contract platforms. Such a privacy-preserving task scheduler requires the task input data to be secretly maintained until a prescribed task execution time and be automatically recorded into the blockchain to enabling the execution of the task at the execution time, even if the user goes offline. While straight-forward centralized approaches provide a basic solution to the problem, unfortunately they are limited to a single point of trust …
Blokchain is used in a variety of applications where trustworthy computing is re-quired. Trade finance is one of these areas that would benefit immensely from a decentralized way of doing transactions. This paper presents the preliminary as-sessment of Accepire-BT, a software platform developed for the practice of col-laborative Trade Finance. The proposed solution is enforced by smart contracts using Solidity, the underlying programming language for the Ethereum block-chain. We evaluated the performance in the Rinkeby test network by using Remix and MetaMask. The results of the preliminary tr…
Atomic Crosschain Transaction technology allows composable programming across private Ethereum blockchains. It allows for inter-contract and inter-blockchain function calls that are both synchronous and atomic: if one part fails, the whole call graph of function calls is rolled back. It is not based on existing techniques such as Hash Time Locked Contracts, relay chains, block header transfer, or trusted intermediaries. BLS Threshold Signatures are used to prove to validators on one blockchain that information came from another blockchain and that a majority of the validators of that blockchai…
Vaccinating the global population against Covid-19 is one of the biggest supply chain management challenges humanity has ever faced. Rapid supply of Covid-19 vaccines is essential for successful global immunization, but its effectiveness depends on a transparent supply chain that can be monitored. In this research, we have proposed an approach based on blockchain technology, which is used to ensure seamless distribution of the Covid-19 vaccine with transparency, data integrity, and full traceability of the supply chain to reduce risk, ensure safety, and immutability. A vaccine supply chain nee…
The traditional oil supply chain suffers from various shortcomings regarding crude oil extraction, processing, distribution, environmental pollution, and traceability. It offers an only a forward flow of products with almost no security and tracking process. In time, the system will lag behind due to the limitations in quality inspection, fraudulent information, and monopolistic behavior of supply chain entities. Inclusion of counterfeiting products and opaqueness of the system urge renovation in this sector. The recent evolution of Industry 4.0 leads to the alternation in the supply chain int…
The recent approval of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) imposes new data protection requirements on data controllers and processors with respect to the processing of European Union (EU) residents' data. These requirements consist of a single set of rules that have binding legal status and should be enforced in all EU member states. In light of these requirements, we propose in this paper the use of a blockchain-based approach to support data accountability and provenance tracking. Our approach relies on the use of publicly auditable contracts deployed in a blockchain that increase…
In recent years, manifold blockchain protocols have been proposed by researchers and industrial companies alike. This has led to a very heterogeneous blockchain landscape. Accordingly, it would be desirable if blockchains could interact with each other. However, current blockchain technologies offer only limited support for interoperability, thus preventing tokens or smart contracts from leaving the scope of a particular blockchain. As a first step towards a solution for cross-chain smart contract interactions, we introduce a framework which allows to invoke a smart contract from another block…
In this paper, we develop BlockMarkchain, as a secure data market place, where individual data sellers can exchange certified data with buyers, in a secure environment, without any mutual trust among the parties, and without trusting on a third party, as a mediator. To develop this platform, we rely on a smart contract, deployed on a secure public blockchain. The main challenges here are to verify the validity of data and to prevent malicious behavior of the parties, while preserving the privacy of the data and taking into account the limited computing and storage resources available on the bl…
Programming errors in Ethereum smart contracts can result in catastrophic financial losses from stolen cryptocurrency. While vulnerability detectors can prevent vulnerable contracts from being deployed, this does not mean that such contracts will not be deployed. Once a vulnerable contract is instantiated on the blockchain and becomes the target of attacks, the identification of exploit transactions becomes indispensable in assessing whether it has been actually exploited and identifying which malicious or subverted accounts were involved. In this work, we study the problem of post-factum inve…
Blockchain's immutability can resist unauthorized changes of ledgers, thus it can be used as a trust enhancement mechanism to a shared system. Indeed, blockchain has been considered to solve the security and privacy issues of the Internet of Things (IoT). In this regard, most researches currently focus on the realization of various access control models and architectures, and are working towards making full use of the blockchain to secure IoT systems. It is worth noting that there has been an increasingly heavy pressure on the blockchain storage caused by dealing with massive IoT data and hand…
While electronic signatures are widespread, there currently exists no viable signing solutions that can track amendments. We proposed VeriSign, a secure contract consensus platform where amendments to contracts can be tracked in a decentralized medium. We demonstrate a user-facing app where signatories can vote on original contracts and amendments, and incorporate a Blockchain where we store the transaction history of original contracts and amendments. This platform has possible applications in tracking the history of legislation, and amendments to legislation.
Blockchain technology and artificial intelligence (AI) are current hot topics in research and practice. However, the potentials of their combination have been studied just recently to a larger extend. While different use cases for combining AI and blockchain have been discussed, the idea of enabling blockchain-based smart contracts to perform "smarter" decisions by using AI or machine learning (ML) models has only been considered on the conceptual level so far. It remained open, how such AI-enabled smart contracts could be implemented in a robust way for real-world applications. Therefore, in …
A smart contract is a digital program of transaction protocol (rules of contract) based on the consensus architecture of blockchain. Smart contracts with Blockchain are modern technologies that have gained enormous attention in scientific and practical applications. A smart contract is the central aspect of a blockchain that facilitates blockchain as a platform outside the cryptocurrency spectrum. The development of blockchain technology, with a focus on smart contracts, has advanced significantly in recent years. However research on the smart contract idea has weaknesses in the implementation…
Central China Normal University（华中师范大学）；CCNU Wollongong Joint Institute（华中师范大学伍伦贡联合研究院）；Hubei University of Technology（湖北工业大学）
With the development of blockchain technology, more and more attention has been paid to the intersection of blockchain and education, and various educational evaluation systems and E-learning systems are developed based on blockchain technology. Among them, Ethereum smart contract is favored by developers for its ``event-triggered" mechanism for building education intelligent trading systems and intelligent learning platforms. However, due to the immutability of blockchain, published smart contracts cannot be modified, so problematic contracts cannot be fixed by modifying the code in the educa…
In this chapter we provide an overview of the concept of blockchain technology and its potential to disrupt the world of banking through facilitating global money remittance, smart contracts, automated banking ledgers and digital assets. In this regard, we first provide a brief overview of the core aspects of this technology, as well as the second-generation contract-based developments. From there we discuss key issues that must be considered in developing such ledger based technologies in a banking context.
