We introduce ProSpect, a generative galaxy spectral energy distribution (SED) package that encapsulates the best practices for SED methodologies in a number of astrophysical domains. ProSpect comes with two popular families of stellar population libraries (BC03 and EMILES), and a large variety of methods to construct star formation and metallicity histories. It models dust through the use of a Charlot & Fall attenuation model, with re-emission using Dale far-infrared templates. It also has the ability to model AGN through the inclusion of a simple AGN and hot torus model. Finally, it makes use of MAPPINGS-III photoionisation tables to produce line emission features. We test the generative and inversion utility of ProSpect through application to the Shark galaxy formation semi-analytic code, and informed by these results produce fits to the final ultraviolet to far-infrared photometric catalogues produces by the Galaxy and Mass Assembly Survey (GAMA). As part of the testing of ProSpect, we also produce a range of simple photometric stellar mass approximations covering a range of filters for both observed frame and rest frame photometry.
Long dynamical timescales in the outskirts of galaxies preserve the information content of their accretion histories, for example in the form of stellar population gradients. We present a detailed analysis of the stellar halo properties of a statistically representative sample of early-type galaxies from the Illustris simulation and show that stellar population gradients at large radii can indeed be used to infer basic properties of galactic accretion histories. We measure metallicity, age, and surface-brightness profiles in quiescent Illustris galaxies ranging from $\mathrm{M}_\star = 10^{10}…
Explaining the internal distribution and motions of stars and gas in galaxies is a key aspect in understanding their evolution. In previous work we identified five well resolved galaxies with atypical kinematics from a cosmological simulation; two had kinematically distinct cores (KDCs), and three had counter-rotating gas and stars (CRGD). In this paper, we show that i) the KDC galaxies have flattening of stellar [O/Fe] at large galacto-centric radii due to the minor mergers that gave rise to the KDCs, and ii) the CRGD galaxies have an abrupt transition in the gas metallicity maps, from high m…
Recent studies have found higher galaxy metallicities in richer environments. It is not yet clear, however, whether metallicity-environment dependencies are merely an indirect consequence of environmentally dependent formation histories, or of environment related processes directly affecting metallicity. Here, we present a first detailed study of metallicity-environment correlations in a cosmological hydrodynamical simulation, in particular the Illustris simulation. Illustris galaxies display similar relations to those observed. Utilizing our knowledge of simulated formation histories, and lev…
Observations have revealed massive (logM*/Msun>11) galaxies that were already dead when the universe was only ~2 Gyr. Given the short time before these galaxies were quenched, their past histories and quenching mechanism(s) are of particular interest. In this paper, we study star formation histories (SFHs) of 24 massive galaxies at 1.6<z<2.5. A deep slitless spectroscopy + imaging data set collected from multiple Hubble Space Telescope surveys allows robust determination of their spectral energy distributions and SFHs with no functional assumption on their forms. We find that most of our massi…
Beyond the Fundamental Metallicity Relation: galaxy sizes encode the link between inflow and metallicity
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews（圣安德鲁斯大学物理与天文学院）；Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh（爱丁堡大学天体物理研究所）；Institute for Computational Cosmology, Department of Physics, Durham University（达勒姆大学物理系计算宇宙学研究所）；Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Department of Physics, Durham University（达勒姆大学物理系河外天文中心）；Departamento de Física–CFM, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina（圣卡塔琳娜联邦大学物理系-中央科学系）；Department of Physics & Astronomy, University College London（伦敦大学学院物理与天文系）；Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy（马克斯·普朗克射电天文研究所）
Determining star formation histories and age-metallicity relations with convolutional neural networks
Universidad Complutense de Madrid（马德里康普顿斯大学）；Instituto de Física de Partículas y del Cosmos, IPARCOS（粒子与宇宙物理研究所，IPARCOS）；Université Côte d’Azur（蔚蓝海岸大学）；Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur（蔚蓝海岸天文台）；CNRS（法国国家科学研究中心）；Laboratoire Lagrange（拉格朗日实验室）；Universität Heidelberg（海德堡大学）；Zentrum für Astronomie, Institut für Theoretische Astrophysik（天文学中心，理论天体物理学研究所）；Interdisziplinäres Zentrum für Wissenschaftliches Rechnen（跨学科科学计算中心）；INAF–Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri（意大利国家天体物理研究所阿切特里天文台）；University of Wyoming（怀俄明大学）；Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias（加那利群岛天体物理研究所）；Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna（拉古纳大学天体物理学系）
We analyse the metallicity histories of ~4,500 galaxies from the GAMA survey at z<0.06 modelled by the SED-fitting code ProSpect using an evolving metallicity implementation. These metallicity histories, in combination with the associated star formation histories, allow us to analyse the inferred gas-phase mass--metallicity relation. Furthermore, we extract the mass--metallicity relation at a sequence of epochs in cosmic history, to track the evolving mass--metallicity relation with time. Through comparison with observations of gas-phase metallicity over a large range of redshifts, we show tha…
We present a summary of our project that studies galaxies hosting type Ia supernova (SN Ia) at different redshifts. We present Gran Telescopio de Canarias (GTC) optical spectroscopy of six SN Ia host galaxies at redshift $z\sim 0.4-0.5$. They are joined to a set of SN Ia host galaxies at intermediate-high redshift, which include galaxies from surveys SDSS and COSMOS. The final sample, after a selection of galaxy spectra in terms of signal-to-noise and other characteristics, consists of 680 galaxies with redshift in the range $0.04 < z < 1$. We perform an inverse stellar population synthesis wi…
There is increasing observational and theoretical evidence for a correlation between the metallicity and the mass of the stellar halo for galaxies with Milky Way-like stellar masses. Using the Illustris cosmological hydrodynamical simulations, we find that this relationship arises because a single massive massive progenitor contributes the bulk of the mass to the accreted stellar component as well as sets its metallicity. Moreover, in the Illustris simulations, this relationship extends over 3 orders of magnitude in accreted stellar mass for central galaxies. We show that for Milky Way-like ma…
Gas-phase metallicities of galaxies are typically measured through auroral or nebular emission lines, but metallicity also leaves an imprint on the overall spectral energy distribution (SED) of a galaxy and can be estimated through SED fitting. We use the ProSpect SED fitting code with a flexible parametric star formation history and an evolving metallicity history to self-consistently measure metallicities, stellar mass, and other galaxy properties for $\sim90\,000$ galaxies from the Deep Extragalactic VIsible Legacy Survey (DEVILS) and Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA) survey. We use these to …
The remarkably tight relationship between galaxy optical color and stellar mass-to-light ratio ($M_*/L$) is widely used for efficient stellar mass estimates. However, it remains unclear whether this low scatter comes from a natural order in the galaxy population, or whether it is driven by simple relationships in the models used to describe them. In this work we investigate the origins of the relationship by contrasting the derived relationship from a simple 4-parameter SED model with a more sophisticated 14-dimensional Prospector-$α$ model including nonparametric star formation histories (SFH…
We report J-band MOSFIRE spectroscopy of a low-mass (log$(M_*/M_\odot)=8.62^{+0.10}_{-0.06}$) star-forming galaxy at $z=0.997$ showing the detection of [NII] and [SII] alongside a strong H$α$ line. We derive a gas-phase metallicity of log$(\text{O}/\text{H})=7.99^{+0.13}_{-0.23}$, placing this object in a region of $M_* - Z$ space that is sparsely populated at this redshift. Furthermore, many existing metallicity measurements in this $M_* - z$ regime are derived from only [NII]/H$α$ (N2), a diagnostic widely used in high-redshift metallicity studies despite the known strong degeneracy with the…
The formation histories of globular clusters (GCs) are a key diagnostic for understanding their relation to the evolution of the Universe through cosmic time. We use the suite of 25 cosmological zoom-in simulations of present-day Milky Way-mass galaxies from the E-MOSAICS project to study the formation histories of stars, clusters, and GCs, and how these are affected by the environmental dependence of the cluster formation physics. We find that the median lookback time of GC formation in these galaxies is ${\sim}10.73~$Gyr ($z=2.1$), roughly $2.5~$Gyr earlier than that of the field stars (${\s…
Local Group (LG) galaxies have relatively accurate SFHs and metallicity evolution derived from resolved CMD modeling, and thus offer a unique opportunity to explore the efficacy of estimating stellar mass M$_{\star}$ of real galaxies based on integrated stellar luminosities. Building on the SFHs and metallicity evolution of 40 LG dwarf galaxies, we carried out a comprehensive study of the influence of SFHs, metallicity evolution, and dust extinction on the UV-to-NIR color-$M/L$ (color-log$Υ_{\star}$($λ$)) relations and M$_{\star}$ estimation of local universe galaxies. We find that: The LG gal…
Physical properties of galaxies at z>7 are of interest for understanding both the early phases of star formation and the process of cosmic reionization. Chemical abundance measurements offer valuable information on the integrated star formation history, and hence ionizing photon production, as well as the rapid gas accretion expected at such high redshifts. We use reported measurements of [O III] 88$μ$m emission and star formation rate to estimate gas-phase oxygen abundances in five galaxies at z=7.1-9.1 using the direct T_e method. We find typical abundances 12+log(O/H) = 7.9 ($\sim$0.2 times…
We study the enrichment histories for nine elements, C, four alpha-elements of Mg, Si, Ca, and Ti, Sc, and three iron-peak elements of Co, Ni, and Zn, by using a large number of stellar data, collected by the Stellar Abundances for Galactic Archaeology (SAGA) database. We find statistically significant changes, or breaks, of the mean abundance ratios to iron at three metallicities of [Fe/H]-1.8, -2.2, and -3.3. Across the first one, the mean abundance ratios decrease with the metallicity by similar extents for all the elements with the sufficient data. Across the latter two, downward trends wi…
Planetesimals inevitably bear the signatures of their natal environment, preserving in their composition a record of the metallicity of their system's original gas and dust, albeit one altered by the formation process. When planetesimals are dispersed from their system of origin, this record is carried with them. As each star is likely to contribute at least $10^{12}$ interstellar objects, the Galaxy's drifting population of interstellar objects (ISOs) provides an overview of the properties of its stellar population through time. Using the EAGLE cosmological simulation and models of protoplane…
We investigate age and metallicity distributions of bright globular clusters (GCs) in the candidate intermediate-age early-type galaxies NGC 3610, NGC 584 and NGC 3377 using a combination of new Gemini/NIRI K'-band imaging and existing optical V,I photometry from HST data. The V-I vs I-K' colour-colour diagram is found to break the age-metallicity degeneracy present in optical colours, as I-K' primarily measures a populations' metallicity and is relatively insensitive, unlike optical spectroscopy, to the effect of hot horizontal branch (HB) stars, known to be present in massive old GCs. We der…
We infer the properties of massive star populations using the far-ultraviolet stellar continua of 61 star-forming galaxies: 42 at low-z observed with HST and 19 at z~2 from the Megasaura sample. We fit each stellar continuum with a linear combination of up to 50 single age and single metallicity Starburst99 models. From these fits, we derive light-weighted ages and metallicities, which agree with stellar wind and photospheric spectral features, and infer the spectral shapes and strengths of the ionizing continua. Inferred light-weighted stellar metallicities span 0.05-1.5 Z$_\odot$ and are sim…
Lithium abundance in most of the warm metal-poor main sequence stars shows a constant plateau (A(Li)~2.2 dex) and then the upper envelope of the lithium vs. metallicity distribution increases as we approach solar metallicity. Meteorites, which carry information about the chemical composition of the interstellar medium at the solar system formation time, show a lithium abundance A(Li)~3.26 dex. This pattern reflects the Li enrichment history of the interstellar medium during the Galaxy lifetime. After the initial Li production in Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, the sources of the enrichment include A…
The star formation and metal enrichment histories of galaxies - at any epoch - constitute one of the key properties of galaxies, and their measurement is a core aim of observational extragalactic astronomy. The lack of deep rest-frame optical coverage at high-redshift has made robust constraints elusive, but this is now changing thanks to the \emph{James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)}. In preparation for the constraints provided by \emph{JWST} we explore the star formation and metal enrichment histories of galaxies at $z=5-13$ using the First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) sui…
Gas-phase metallicity gradients in galaxies provide important clues to those galaxies' formation histories. Using SDSS-IV MaNGA data, we previously demonstrated that gas metallicity gradients vary systematically and significantly across the galaxy mass--size plane: at stellar masses beyond approximately $10^{10}$ $\mathrm{M_\odot}$, more extended galaxies display steeper gradients (in units of $\mathrm{dex/R_e}$) at a given stellar mass. Here, we set out to develop a physical interpretation of these findings by examining the ability of local $\sim$kpc-scale relations to predict the gradient be…
MaNGA DynPop -- II. Global stellar population, gradients, and star-formation histories from integral-field spectroscopy of 10K galaxies: link with galaxy rotation, shape, and total-density gradients
该研究利用 MaNGA DR17 约一万个星系的积分场光谱，分析恒星族群、径向梯度与恒星形成历史，并揭示其与旋转、速度弥散、密度结构及暗物质比例的联系。
The metallicity spread, or the metallicity trend along the evolutionary sequence of a globular cluster, is a rich source of information to help understand the cluster physics (e.g. multiple populations) and stellar physics (e.g. atomic diffusion). Low-resolution integral-field-unit spectroscopy in the optical with the MUSE is an attractive prospect if it can provide these diagnostics because it allows us to extract spectra of a large fraction of the cluster stars. We investigate the possibilities of full-spectrum fitting to derive stellar parameters and chemical abundances at low spectral reso…
The colour-magnitude diagrams of resolved stellar populations are the best tool to study the star formation histories of the host galactic regions. In this review the method to derive star formation histories by means of synthetic colour-magnitude diagrams is briefly outlined, and the results of its application to resolved galaxies of various morphological types are summarized. It is shown that all the galaxies studied so far were already forming stars at the lookback time reached by the observational data, independently of morphological type and metallicity. Early-type galaxies have formed st…
We analyze the optical continuum of star-forming galaxies in SDSS by fitting stacked spectra with stellar population synthesis models to investigate the relation between stellar mass, stellar metallicity, dust attenuation and star formation rate. We fit models calculated with star formation and chemical evolution histories that are derived empirically from multi-epoch observations of the stellar mass---star formation rate and the stellar mass---gas-phase metallicity relations, respectively. We also fit linear combinations of single burst models with a range of metallicities and ages. Star form…
We study the internal gradients of stellar population properties within $1.5\;R_{\rm e}$ for a representative sample of 721 galaxies with stellar masses ranging between $10^{9}\;M_{\odot}$ to $10^{11.5}\;M_{\odot}$ from the SDSS-IV MaNGA IFU survey. Through the use of our full spectral fitting code FIREFLY, we derive light and mass-weighted stellar population properties and their radial gradients, as well as full star formation and metal enrichment histories. We also quanfify the impact that different stellar population models and full spectral fitting routines have on the derived stellar popu…
While wide-field surveys of M31 have revealed much substructure at large radii, understanding the nature and origin of this material is not straightforward from morphology alone. Using deep HST/ACS data, we have derived further constraints in the form of quantitative star formation histories (SFHs) for 14 inner halo fields which sample diverse substructures. In agreement with our previous analysis of colour-magnitude diagram morphologies, we find the resultant behaviours can be broadly separated into two categories. The SFHs of 'disc-like' fields indicate that most of their mass has formed sin…
Due to its proximity (9 Mpc) and the strongly bimodal color distribution of its spectroscopically well-sampled globular cluster (GC) system, the early-type galaxy NGC 3115 provides one of the best available tests of whether the color bimodality widely observed in GC systems generally reflects a true metallicity bimodality. Color bimodality has alternatively been attributed to a strongly nonlinear color--metallicity relation reflecting the influence of hot horizontal branch stars. Here we couple Subaru Suprime-Cam gi photometry with Keck/DEIMOS spectroscopy to accurately measure GC colors and a…
Massive early-type galaxies typically have two subpopulations of globular clusters (GCs) which often reveal radial colour (metallicity) gradients. Collating gradients from the literature, we show that the gradients in the metal-rich and metal-poor GC subpopulations are the same, within measurement uncertainties, in a given galaxy. Furthermore, these GC gradients are similar in strength to the {\it stellar} metallicity gradient of the host galaxy. At the very largest radii (e.g. greater than 8 galaxy effective radii) there is some evidence that the GC gradients become flat with near constant me…
A key task of observational extragalactic astronomy is to determine where -- within galaxies of diverse masses and morphologies -- stellar mass growth occurs, how it depends on galaxy properties and what processes regulate star formation. Using spectroscopic indices derived from the stellar continuum at $\sim 4000$Å, we determine the spatially resolved star-formation histories of 980000 spaxels in 2404 galaxies in the SDSS-IV MaNGA IFU survey. We examine the spatial distribution of star-forming, quiescent, green valley, starburst and post-starburst spaxels as a function of stellar mass and mor…
We present 25 cosmological zoom-in simulations of Milky Way-mass galaxies in the `MOdelling Star cluster population Assembly In Cosmological Simulations within EAGLE' (E-MOSAICS) project. E-MOSAICS couples a detailed physical model for the formation, evolution, and disruption of star clusters to the EAGLE galaxy formation simulations. This enables following the co-formation and co-evolution of galaxies and their star cluster populations, thus realising the long-standing promise of using globular clusters (GCs) as tracers of galaxy formation and assembly. The simulations show that the age-metal…
We present a new chemical evolution model for dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSphs) in the Local Universe. Our main aim is to explain both their observed star formation histories and metallicity distribution functions simultaneously. Applying our new model for the four local dSphs, that is, Fornax, Sculptor, Leo II, and Sextans, we find that our new model reproduces the observed chemical properties of the dSphs consistently. Our results show that the dSphs have evolved with both a low star formation efficiency and a large gas outflow efficiency compared with the Milky Way, as suggested by previous…
We present the stellar population content of early-type galaxies from the Atlas3D survey. Using spectra integrated within apertures covering up to one effective radius, we apply two methods: one based on measuring line-strength indices and applying single stellar population (SSP) models to derive SSP-equivalent values of stellar age, metallicity, and alpha enhancement; and one based on spectral fitting to derive non-parametric star-formation histories, mass-weighted average values of age, metallicity, and half-mass formation timescales. Using homogeneously derived effective radii and dynamical…
The formation of nuclear star clusters (NSCs) remains an open question. In this work, we use spatially resolved HST/STIS spectroscopic observations of three nearby NSCs (hosted by NGC 5102, NGC 5206, and NGC 205) to constrain their formation histories by exploring radial variations of the stellar populations within each cluster. Utilizing full-spectrum fitting, we find substantial age and metallicity gradients within the central 0."9 (16~pc) of the NSC in NGC 5102 where populations near the center are young/metal-rich (age ~400~Myr and [M/H] ~-0.4) and become older/metal-poor at larger radii (…
The [OIII] 88 $μ$m fine structure emission line has been detected into the Epoch of Reionization (EoR) from star-forming galaxies at redshifts $6 < z \lesssim 9$ with ALMA. These measurements provide valuable information regarding the properties of the interstellar medium (ISM) in the highest redshift galaxies discovered thus far. The [OIII] 88 $μ$m line observations leave, however, a degeneracy between the gas density and metallicity in these systems. Here we quantify the prospects for breaking this degeneracy using future ALMA observations of the [\oiii] 52 $μ$m line. Among the current set o…
Stellar feedback-driven outflows regulate the stellar formation and chemical enrichment of galaxies, yet the underlying dependence of mass outflow rate on galaxy properties remains largely unknown. We develop a simple yet comprehensive non-equilibrium chemical evolution model~(NE-CEM) to constrain the mass-loading factor $η$ of outflows using the metallicity-stellar mass-SFR relation observed by SDSS at $z{=}0$. Our NE-CEM predicts the chemical enrichment by explicitly tracking both the histories of star formation and mass-loading. After exploring the EAGLE simulation, we discover a compact ye…
Observations indicate blue globular clusters have half-light radii systematically larger than those of red globular clusters. In this paper, we test whether the different metallicity-dependent stellar evolution timescales and mass-loss rates within the clusters can impact their early dynamical evolution. By means of N-body simulations including stellar evolution recipes we simulate the early evolution of small centrally concentrated clusters with and without primordial mass segregation. Our simulations include accurate metallicity-dependent mass loss from massive stars. We find blue clusters t…
The metallicity of star-forming gas in galaxies from the EAGLE simulations increases with stellar mass. Here we investigate whether the scatter around this relation correlates with morphology and/or stellar kinematics. At redshift $z=0$, galaxies with more rotational support have lower metallicities on average when the stellar mass is below $M_\star\approx 10^{10}~{\rm M}_\odot$. This trend inverts at higher values of $M_\star$, when prolate galaxies show typically lower metallicity. At increasing redshifts, the trend between rotational support and metallicity becomes weaker at low stellar mas…
We present a detailed analysis of the Horizontal Branch of the Carina Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy by means of synthetic modelling techniques, taking consistently into account the star formation history and metallicity evolution as determined from main sequence and red giant branch spectroscopic observations. We found that a range of integrated red giant branch mass loss values of 0.1-0.14 M, increasing with metallicity, is able to reproduce the colour extension of the old Horizontal Branch. However, leaving the mass loss as the only free parameter is not enough to match the detailed morphology of …
The formation processes that led to the current Galactic stellar halo are still under debate. Previous studies have provided evidence for different stellar populations in terms of elemental abundances and kinematics, pointing to different chemical and star-formation histories. In the present work we explore, over a broader range in metallicity (-2.2 < [Fe/H] < -0.5), the two stellar populations detected in the first paper of this series from metal-poor stars in DR13 of the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE). We aim to infer signatures of the initial mass function (…
We introduce and apply a new approach to probe the response of galactic stellar haloes to the interplay between cosmological merger histories and galaxy formation physics. We perform dark matter-only, zoomed simulations of two Milky Way-mass hosts and make targeted, controlled changes to their cosmological histories using the genetic modification technique. Populating each history's stellar halo with a semi-empirical, particle tagging approach then enables a controlled study, with all instances converging to the same large-scale structure, dynamical and stellar mass at $z=0$ as their reference…
The combination of gas-phase oxygen abundances and stellar metallicities can provide us with unique insights into the metal enrichment histories of galaxies. In this work, we compare the stellar and gas-phase metallicities measured within a 1$R_{e}$ aperture for a representative sample of 472 star-forming galaxies extracted from the SAMI Galaxy Survey. We confirm that the stellar and interstellar medium (ISM) metallicities are strongly correlated, with scatter $\sim$3 times smaller than that found in previous works, and that integrated stellar populations are generally more metal-poor than the…
We present a comprehensive study of the applications of the pixel color-magnitude diagram (pCMD) technique for measuring star formation histories (SFHs) and other stellar population parameters of galaxies, and demonstrate that the technique can also constrain distances. SFHs have previously been measured through either the modeling of resolved-star CMDs or of integrated-light SEDs, yet neither approach can easily be applied to galaxies in the "semi-resolved regime". The pCMD technique has previously been shown to have the potential to measure stellar populations and star formation histories in…
The ongoing surveys of galaxies and those for the next generation of telescopes will demand the execution of high-CPU consuming machine codes for recovering detailed star formation histories (SFHs) and hence age-metallicity relationships (AMRs). We present here an expeditive method which provides quick-look AMRs on the basis of representative ages and metallicities obtained from colour-magnitude diagram (CMD) analyses. We have tested its perfomance by generating synthetic CMDs for a wide variety of galaxy SFHs. The representative AMRs turn out to be reliable down to a magnitude limit with a ph…
We present the abundance analysis of 97 nearby metal-poor (-3.3<[Fe/H]<-0.5) stars having kinematics characteristics of the Milky Way (MW) thick disk, inner, and outer stellar halos. The high-resolution, high-signal-to-noise optical spectra for the sample stars have been obtained with the High Dispersion Spectrograph mounted on the Subaru Telescope. Abundances of Fe, Mg, Si, Ca and Ti have been derived using a one-dimensional LTE abundance analysis code with Kurucz NEWODF model atmospheres. By assigning membership of the sample stars to the thick disk, inner or outer halo components based on t…
We develop a theoretical framework that extracts a deeper understanding of galaxy formation from empirically-derived relations among galaxy properties by extending the main-sequence integration method for computing galaxy star formation histories. We properly account for scatter in the stellar mass-star formation rate relation and the evolving fraction of passive systems and find that the latter effect is almost solely responsible for the age distributions among $z\sim0$ galaxies with stellar masses above $\sim 10^{10}\,{\rm M_{\odot}}$. However, while we qualitatively agree with the observed …
