Obtaining labels for medical (image) data requires scarce and expensive experts. Moreover, due to ambiguous symptoms, single images rarely suffice to correctly diagnose a medical condition. Instead, it often requires to take additional background information such as the patient's medical history or test results into account. Hence, instead of focusing on uninterpretable black-box systems delivering an uncertain final diagnosis in an end-to-end-fashion, we investigate how unsupervised methods trained on images without anomalies can be used to assist doctors in evaluating X-ray images of hands. Our method increases the efficiency of making a diagnosis and reduces the risk of missing important regions. Therefore, we adopt state-of-the-art approaches for unsupervised learning to detect anomalies and show how the outputs of these methods can be explained. To reduce the effect of noise, which often can be mistaken for an anomaly, we introduce a powerful preprocessing pipeline. We provide an extensive evaluation of different approaches and demonstrate empirically that even without labels it is possible to achieve satisfying results on a real-world dataset of X-ray images of hands. We also evaluate the importance of preprocessing and one of our main findings is that without it, most of our approaches perform not better than random. To foster reproducibility and accelerate research we make our code publicly available at https://github.com/Valentyn1997/xray
Shanghai Jiao Tong University（上海交通大学）；University of Texas at Austin（德克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校）
Surrogate task based methods have recently shown great promise for unsupervised image anomaly detection. However, there is no guarantee that the surrogate tasks share the consistent optimization direction with anomaly detection. In this paper, we return to a direct objective function for anomaly detection with information theory, which maximizes the distance between normal and anomalous data in terms of the joint distribution of images and their representation. Unfortunately, this objective function is not directly optimizable under the unsupervised setting where no anomalous data is provided …
A method for unsupervised contextual anomaly detection is proposed using a cross-linked pair of Variational Auto-Encoders for assigning a normality score to an observation. The method enables a distinct separation of contextual from behavioral attributes and is robust to the presence of anomalous or novel contextual attributes. The method can be trained with data sets that contain anomalies without any special pre-processing.
Many real-world monitoring and surveillance applications require non-trivial anomaly detection to be run in the streaming model. We consider an incremental-learning approach, wherein a deep-autoencoding (DAE) model of what is normal is trained and used to detect anomalies at the same time. In the detection of anomalies, we utilise a novel thresholding mechanism, based on value at risk (VaR). We compare the resulting convolutional neural network (CNN) against a number of subspace methods, and present results on changedetection net.
Anomaly detection in images plays a significant role for many applications across all industries, such as disease diagnosis in healthcare or quality assurance in manufacturing. Manual inspection of images, when extended over a monotonously repetitive period of time is very time consuming and can lead to anomalies being overlooked.Artificial neural networks have proven themselves very successful on simple, repetitive tasks, in some cases even outperforming humans. Therefore, in this paper we investigate different methods of deep learning, including supervised and unsupervised learning, for anom…
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras（马德拉斯印度理工学院）；Healthcare Technology Innovation Centre, IIT Madras（印度理工学院马德拉斯分校医疗技术创新中心）
Anomaly detection in MRI is of high clinical value in imaging and diagnosis. Unsupervised methods for anomaly detection provide interesting formulations based on reconstruction or latent embedding, offering a way to observe properties related to factorization. We study four existing modeling methods, and report our empirical observations using simple data science tools, to seek outcomes from the perspective of factorization as it would be most relevant to the task of unsupervised anomaly detection, considering the case of brain structural MRI. Our study indicates that anomaly detection algorit…
Anomalies are by definition rare, thus labeled examples are very limited or nonexistent, and likely do not cover unforeseen scenarios. Unsupervised learning methods that don't necessarily encounter anomalies in training would be immensely useful. Generative vision models can be useful in this regard but do not sufficiently represent normal and abnormal data distributions. To this end, we propose constant curvature manifolds for embedding data distributions in unsupervised visual anomaly detection. Through theoretical and empirical explorations of manifold shapes, we develop a novel hyperspheri…
Constructing an ensemble from a heterogeneous set of unsupervised anomaly detection methods is challenging because the class labels or the ground truth is unknown. Thus, traditional ensemble techniques that use the response variable or the class labels cannot be used to construct an ensemble for unsupervised anomaly detection. We use Item Response Theory (IRT) -- a class of models used in educational psychometrics to assess student and test question characteristics -- to construct an unsupervised anomaly detection ensemble. IRT's latent trait computation lends itself to anomaly detection becau…
Machine learning (ML) algorithms are optimized for the distribution represented by the training data. For outlier data, they often deliver predictions with equal confidence, even though these should not be trusted. In order to deploy ML-based digital pathology solutions in clinical practice, effective methods for detecting anomalous data are crucial to avoid incorrect decisions in the outlier scenario. We propose a new unsupervised learning approach for anomaly detection in histopathology data based on generative adversarial networks (GANs). Compared to the existing GAN-based methods that have…
This paper presents a novel framework for unsupervised anomaly detection on masked objects called ODDObjects, which stands for Out-of-Distribution Detection on Objects. ODDObjects is designed to detect anomalies of various categories using unsupervised autoencoders trained on COCO-style datasets. The method utilizes autoencoder-based image reconstruction, where high reconstruction error indicates the possibility of an anomaly. The framework extends previous work on anomaly detection with autoencoders, comparing state-of-the-art models trained on object recognition datasets. Various model archi…
We introduce a new unsupervised anomaly detection ensemble called SPI which can harness privileged information - data available only for training examples but not for (future) test examples. Our ideas build on the Learning Using Privileged Information (LUPI) paradigm pioneered by Vapnik et al. [19,17], which we extend to unsupervised learning and in particular to anomaly detection. SPI (for Spotting anomalies with Privileged Information) constructs a number of frames/fragments of knowledge (i.e., density estimates) in the privileged space and transfers them to the anomaly scoring space through…
We propose a neural network for unsupervised anomaly detection with a novel robust subspace recovery layer (RSR layer). This layer seeks to extract the underlying subspace from a latent representation of the given data and removes outliers that lie away from this subspace. It is used within an autoencoder. The encoder maps the data into a latent space, from which the RSR layer extracts the subspace. The decoder then smoothly maps back the underlying subspace to a "manifold" close to the original inliers. Inliers and outliers are distinguished according to the distances between the original and…
Anomaly detection has been considered under several extents of prior knowledge. Unsupervised methods do not require any labelled data, whereas semi-supervised methods leverage some known anomalies. Inspired by mixture-of-experts models and the analysis of the hidden activations of neural networks, we introduce a novel data-driven anomaly detection method called ARGUE. Our method is not only applicable to unsupervised and semi-supervised environments, but also profits from prior knowledge of self-supervised settings. We designed ARGUE as a combination of dedicated expert networks, which special…
City, University of London（伦敦大学城市学院）；Imperial College（帝国理工学院）
We propose a novel unsupervised out-of-distribution detection method for medical images based on implicit fields image representations. In our approach, an auto-decoder feed-forward neural network learns the distribution of healthy images in the form of a mapping between spatial coordinates and probabilities over a proxy for tissue types. At inference time, the learnt distribution is used to retrieve, from a given test image, a restoration, i.e. an image maximally consistent with the input one but belonging to the healthy distribution. Anomalies are localized using the voxel-wise probability p…
This paper proposes an unsupervised anomaly detection technique for image-based plant disease diagnosis. The construction of large and publicly available datasets containing labeled images of healthy and diseased crop plants led to growing interest in computer vision techniques for automatic plant disease diagnosis. Although supervised image classifiers based on deep learning can be a powerful tool for plant disease diagnosis, they require a huge amount of labeled data. The data mining technique of anomaly detection includes unsupervised approaches that do not require rare samples for training…
German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ)（德国癌症研究中心（DKFZ））
Unsupervised learning can leverage large-scale data sources without the need for annotations. In this context, deep learning-based auto encoders have shown great potential in detecting anomalies in medical images. However, state-of-the-art anomaly scores are still based on the reconstruction error, which lacks in two essential parts: it ignores the model-internal representation employed for reconstruction, and it lacks formal assertions and comparability between samples. We address these shortcomings by proposing the Context-encoding Variational Autoencoder (ceVAE) which combines reconstructio…
Towards Universal Unsupervised Anomaly Detection in Medical Imaging
Technical University of Munich（慕尼黑工业大学）；Helmholtz AI and Helmholtz Center Munich（亥姆霍兹人工智能与亥姆霍兹慕尼黑中心）；Klinikum Rechts der Isar（伊萨尔河右岸医院）；Imperial College London（伦敦帝国理工学院）
Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology（斯科尔科沃科学技术研究院）
Fraud in healthcare is widespread, as doctors could prescribe unnecessary treatments to increase bills. Insurance companies want to detect these anomalous fraudulent bills and reduce their losses. Traditional fraud detection methods use expert rules and manual data processing. Recently, machine learning techniques automate this process, but hand-labeled data is extremely costly and usually out of date. We propose a machine learning model that automates fraud detection in an unsupervised way. Two deep learning approaches include LSTM neural network for prediction next patient visit and a seq2se…
Columbia University（哥伦比亚大学）；Facebook Data Engineering（Facebook数据工程）
Methods for unsupervised anomaly detection suffer from the fact that the data is unlabeled, making it difficult to assess the optimality of detection algorithms. Ensemble learning has shown exceptional results in classification and clustering problems, but has not seen as much research in the context of outlier detection. Existing methods focus on combining output scores of individual detectors, but this leads to outputs that are not easily interpretable. In this paper, we introduce a theoretical foundation for combining individual detectors with Bayesian classifier combination. Not only are p…
University of Bucharest（布加勒斯特大学）；The Research Institute of the University of Bucharest (ICUB)（布加勒斯特大学研究院（ICUB））
We investigate the possibilities of employing dictionary learning to address the requirements of most anomaly detection applications, such as absence of supervision, online formulations, low false positive rates. We present new results of our recent semi-supervised online algorithm, TODDLeR, on a anti-money laundering application. We also introduce a novel unsupervised method of using the performance of the learning algorithm as indication of the nature of the samples.
Anomaly detection from a single image is challenging since anomaly data is always rare and can be with highly unpredictable types. With only anomaly-free data available, most existing methods train an AutoEncoder to reconstruct the input image and find the difference between the input and output to identify the anomalous region. However, such methods face a potential problem - a coarse reconstruction generates extra image differences while a high-fidelity one may draw in the anomaly. In this paper, we solve this contradiction by proposing a two-stage approach, which generates high-fidelity yet…
University of Bologna（博洛尼亚大学）；CINECA consorzio interuniversitario（CINECA大学间联盟）；ETH（苏黎世联邦理工学院）
The increasing complexity of modern high-performance computing (HPC) systems necessitates the introduction of automated and data-driven methodologies to support system administrators' effort toward increasing the system's availability. Anomaly detection is an integral part of improving the availability as it eases the system administrator's burden and reduces the time between an anomaly and its resolution. However, current state-of-the-art (SoA) approaches to anomaly detection are supervised and semi-supervised, so they require a human-labelled dataset with anomalies - this is often impractica…
Clustering is essential to many tasks in pattern recognition and computer vision. With the advent of deep learning, there is an increasing interest in learning deep unsupervised representations for clustering analysis. Many works on this domain rely on variants of auto-encoders and use the encoder outputs as representations/features for clustering. In this paper, we show that an l2 normalization constraint on these representations during auto-encoder training, makes the representations more separable and compact in the Euclidean space after training. This greatly improves the clustering accura…
Unsupervised Anomaly Detection on Implicit Shape representations for Sarcopenia Detection
CNRS（法国国家科学研究中心）；LS2N（南特数字科学实验室）；Movement - Interactions - Performance（运动-互动-表现研究所）；IP UR 4334 UFR STAPS（体育与运动科学学院）；CHU Nantes（南特大学医院）；INSERM（法国国家健康与医学研究院）；l’institut du thorax（胸部研究所）；Institut Universitaire de France (IUF)（法国大学研究院）
Electronics Telecommunications Research Institute（电子电信研究院）；Univ. of Science Technology（科学技术大学）；ETH Zurich（苏黎世联邦理工学院）；Information Technology Univ（信息技术大学）；Mohamed bin Zayed Univ. of Artificial Intelligence（穆罕默德·本·扎耶德人工智能大学）
Video anomaly detection is well investigated in weakly-supervised and one-class classification (OCC) settings. However, unsupervised video anomaly detection methods are quite sparse, likely because anomalies are less frequent in occurrence and usually not well-defined, which when coupled with the absence of ground truth supervision, could adversely affect the performance of the learning algorithms. This problem is challenging yet rewarding as it can completely eradicate the costs of obtaining laborious annotations and enable such systems to be deployed without human intervention. To this end, …
In recent years, anomaly detection has become an essential field in medical image analysis. Most current anomaly detection methods for medical images are based on image reconstruction. In this work, we propose a novel anomaly detection approach based on coordinate regression. Our method estimates the position of patches within a volume, and is trained only on data of healthy subjects. During inference, we can detect and localize anomalies by considering the error of the position estimate of a given patch. We apply our method to 3D CT volumes and evaluate it on patients with intracranial haemor…
NTT Communication Science Laboratories（NTT通信科学实验室）；NTT Software Innovation Center（NTT软件创新中心）
We propose a supervised anomaly detection method for data with inexact anomaly labels, where each label, which is assigned to a set of instances, indicates that at least one instance in the set is anomalous. Although many anomaly detection methods have been proposed, they cannot handle inexact anomaly labels. To measure the performance with inexact anomaly labels, we define the inexact AUC, which is our extension of the area under the ROC curve (AUC) for inexact labels. The proposed method trains an anomaly score function so that the smooth approximation of the inexact AUC increases while anom…
Dimensionality reduction is a crucial first step for many unsupervised learning tasks including anomaly detection and clustering. Autoencoder is a popular mechanism to accomplish dimensionality reduction. In order to make dimensionality reduction effective for high-dimensional data embedding nonlinear low-dimensional manifold, it is understood that some sort of geodesic distance metric should be used to discriminate the data samples. Inspired by the success of geodesic distance approximators such as ISOMAP, we propose to use a minimum spanning tree (MST), a graph-based algorithm, to approximat…
Uncanny Vision Solutions（Uncanny Vision解决方案公司）；Université Charles de Gaulle, Lille 3（戴高乐大学（里尔第三大学））
Videos represent the primary source of information for surveillance applications and are available in large amounts but in most cases contain little or no annotation for supervised learning. This article reviews the state-of-the-art deep learning based methods for video anomaly detection and categorizes them based on the type of model and criteria of detection. We also perform simple studies to understand the different approaches and provide the criteria of evaluation for spatio-temporal anomaly detection.
University of Maryland College Park（马里兰大学帕克分校）；IBM Research（IBM研究院）
Detecting out of distribution (OOD) samples is of paramount importance in all Machine Learning applications. Deep generative modeling has emerged as a dominant paradigm to model complex data distributions without labels. However, prior work has shown that generative models tend to assign higher likelihoods to OOD samples compared to the data distribution on which they were trained. First, we propose Adversarial Mirrored Autoencoder (AMA), a variant of Adversarial Autoencoder, which uses a mirrored Wasserstein loss in the discriminator to enforce better semantic-level reconstruction. We also pr…
DINO-AD: Unsupervised Anomaly Detection with Frozen DINO-V3 Features
National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK（帝国理工学院伦敦心脏和肺研究所）；Department of Digital Twins for Healthcare, BMEIS, King’s College London, London, UK（King’s College London医疗数字双领域部门）；SonoScape Medical Corp.（SonoScape医疗公司）
Warsaw University of Technology（华沙理工大学）；TECNALIA（泰克纳利亚）；University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)（巴斯克大学(UPV/EHU)）
Unsupervised anomaly discovery in stream data is a research topic with many practical applications. However, in many cases, it is not easy to collect enough training data with labeled anomalies for supervised learning of an anomaly detector in order to deploy it later for identification of real anomalies in streaming data. It is thus important to design anomalies detectors that can correctly detect anomalies without access to labeled training data. Our idea is to adapt the Online evolving Spiking Neural Network (OeSNN) classifier to the anomaly detection task. As a result, we offer an Online e…
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)（韩国科学技术院）；Harvard University（哈佛大学）
In this paper, we propose Normality-Calibrated Autoencoder (NCAE), which can boost anomaly detection performance on the contaminated datasets without any prior information or explicit abnormal samples in the training phase. The NCAE adversarially generates high confident normal samples from a latent space having low entropy and leverages them to predict abnormal samples in a training dataset. NCAE is trained to minimise reconstruction errors in uncontaminated samples and maximise reconstruction errors in contaminated samples. The experimental results demonstrate that our method outperforms sha…
Panasonic AI Lab（松下人工智能实验室）；Panasonic Technology Division（松下技术事业部）
Unsupervised anomaly detection with localization has many practical applications when labeling is infeasible and, moreover, when anomaly examples are completely missing in the train data. While recently proposed models for such data setup achieve high accuracy metrics, their complexity is a limiting factor for real-time processing. In this paper, we propose a real-time model and analytically derive its relationship to prior methods. Our CFLOW-AD model is based on a conditional normalizing flow framework adopted for anomaly detection with localization. In particular, CFLOW-AD consists of a disc…
We investigate anomaly detection in an unsupervised framework and introduce Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) neural network based algorithms. In particular, given variable length data sequences, we first pass these sequences through our LSTM based structure and obtain fixed length sequences. We then find a decision function for our anomaly detectors based on the One Class Support Vector Machines (OC-SVM) and Support Vector Data Description (SVDD) algorithms. As the first time in the literature, we jointly train and optimize the parameters of the LSTM architecture and the OC-SVM (or SVDD) algorith…
