The Red Supergiant Progenitor of Supernova 2012aw (PTF12bvh) in Messier 95
Schuyler D. Van Dyk, S. Bradley Cenko, Dovi Poznanski, Iair Arcavi, Avishay Gal-Yam, Alexei V. Filippenko, Kathryn Silverio, Alan Stockton, Jean-Charles Cuillan… 展开作者
Schuyler D. Van Dyk, S. Bradley Cenko, Dovi Poznanski, Iair Arcavi, Avishay Gal-Yam, Alexei V. Filippenko, Kathryn Silverio, Alan Stockton, Jean-Charles Cuillandre, Geoffrey W. Marcy, Andrew W. Howard, Howard Isaacson
We report on the direct detection and characterization of the probable red supergiant progenitor of the intermediate-luminosity Type II-Plateau (II-P) supernova (SN) 2012aw in the nearby (10.0 Mpc) spiral galaxy Messier 95 (M95; NGC 3351). We have identified the star in both Hubble Space Telescope images of the host galaxy, obtained 17-18 yr prior to the explosion, and near-infrared ground-based images, obtained 6-12 yr prior to the SN. The luminous supergiant showed evidence for substantial circumstellar dust, manifested as excess line-of-sight extinction. The effective total-to-selective ratio of extinction to the star was R'_V \approx 4.35, which is significantly different from that of diffuse interstellar dust (i.e., R_V=3.1), and the total extinction to the star was therefore, on average, A_V \approx 3.1 mag. We find that the observed spectral energy distribution for the progenitor star is consistent with an effective temperature of 3600 K (spectral type M3), and that the star therefore had a bolometric magnitude of -8.29. Through comparison with recent theoretical massive-star evolutionary tracks we can infer that the red supergiant progenitor had an initial mass 15 \lesssim M_{ini} (M_sun) < 20. Interpolating by eye between the available tracks, we surmise that the star had initial mass ~17-18 M_sun. The circumstellar dust around the progenitor must have been destroyed in the explosion, as the visual extinction to the SN is found to be low (A_V=0.24 mag with R_V=3.1).
We have identified a luminous star at the position of supernova (SN) 2011dh/PTF11eon, in pre-SN archival, multi-band images of the nearby, nearly face-on galaxy Messier 51 (M51) obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope with the Advanced Camera for Surveys. This identification has been confirmed, to the highest available astrometric precision, using a Keck-II adaptive-optics image. The available early-time spectra and photometry indicate that the SN is a stripped-envelope, core-collapse Type IIb, with a more compact progenitor (radius ~1e11 cm) than was the case for the well-studied SN IIb 1993J.…
The old, solar metallicity open cluster Messier 67 has long been considered a lynchpin in the study and understanding of the structure and evolution of solar-type stars. The same is arguably true for stellar remnants - the white dwarf population of M67 provides crucial observational data for understanding and interpreting white dwarf populations and evolution. In this work, we determine the white dwarf masses and derive their progenitor star masses using high signal-to-noise spectroscopy of warm ($\gtrsim10,000$ K) DA white dwarfs in the cluster. From this we are able to derive each white dwar…
Massive stars end their lives in spectacular supernova explosions. Identifying the progenitor star is a test of stellar evolution and explosion models. Here we show that the progenitor star of the supernova SN 2008bk has now disappeared, which provides conclusive evidence that this was the death of a red supergiant star.
We present observations of SN2009hd in the nearby galaxy M66. This SN is one of the closest to us in recent years but heavily obscured by dust, rendering it unusually faint in the optical, given its proximity. We find that the observed properties of SN2009hd support its classification as a possible Type II-L SN, a relatively rare subclass of CC-SNe. High-precision relative astrometry has been employed to attempt to identify a SN progenitor candidate, based on a pixel-by-pixel comparison between HST F555W and F814W images of the SN site prior to explosion and at late times. A progenitor candida…
We investigate the red supergiant problem: the apparent dearth of Type IIP supernova progenitors with masses between 16 and 30 M_sun. Although red supergiants with masses in this range have been observed, none have been identified as progenitors in pre-explosion images. We show that by failing to take into account the additional extinction resulting from the dust produced in the red supergiant winds, we risk underestimating the luminosity of the most massive red supergiants at the end of their lives. We estimate the initial masses of all Type IIP progenitors for which observations exist and an…
The increasing observed number of supernova events allows for finding ever more frequently the progenitor star in archive images. In a few cases, the progenitor star is a yellow supergiant star. The estimated position in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram of these stars is not compatible with the theoretical tracks of classical single star models. According to several authors, the mass-loss rates during the red supergiant phase could be underestimated. We study the impact of an increase of these mass-loss rates on the position of 12 to 15 M\odot stars at the end of their nuclear life, in order to…
We have obtained limited photometric and spectroscopic data for Supernova (SN) 2008bk in NGC 7793, primarily at >~ 150 d after explosion. We find that it is a Type II-Plateau (II-P) SN which most closely resembles the low-luminosity SN 1999br in NGC 4900. Given the overall similarity between the observed light curves and colors of SNe 2008bk and 1999br, we infer that the total visual extinction to SN 2008bk (A_V=0.065 mag) must be almost entirely due to the Galactic foreground, similar to what has been assumed for SN 1999br. We confirm the identification of the putative red supergiant (RSG) pr…
Using images from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and the Gemini Telescope we confirm the disappearance of the progenitors of two Type II supernovae (SNe), and evaluate the presence of other stars associated with them. We find that the progenitor of SN 2003gd, an M-supergiant star, is no longer observed at the SN location, and determine its intrinsic brightness using image subtraction techniques. The progenitor of SN 1993J, a K-supergiant star, is also no longer present, but its B-supergiant binary companion is still observed. The disappearance of the progenitors confirms that these two SNe w…
Red supergiants have been confirmed as the progenitor stars of the majority of hydrogen-rich type II supernovae. However, while such stars are observed with masses >25M$_\odot$, detections of >18M$_\odot$ progenitors remain elusive. Red supergiants are also expected to form at all metallicities, but discoveries of explosions from low-metallicity progenitors are scarce. Here, we report observations of the type II supernova, SN 2015bs, for which we infer a progenitor metallicity of $\leq$0.1Z$_\odot$ from comparison to photospheric-phase spectral models, and a Zero Age Main-Sequence mass of 17-2…
In the present paper we show that within all the uncertainties that govern the process of Roche lobe overflow in Case Br type massive binaries, it can not be excluded that a significant fraction of them merge and become single stars. We demonstrate that at least some of them will spend most of their core helium burning phase as hydrogen rich blue stars, populating the massive blue supergiant region and/or the massive Be type star population. The evolutionary simulations let us suspect that these mergers will explode as luminous hydrogen rich stars and it is tempting to link them to at least so…
Through comparison of pre- and post-explosion images obtained with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 onboard the Hubble Space Telescope, we have isolated a supergiant star prior to explosion at nearly the same position as the high-luminosity SN II-P 2008cn. We provide evidence that this supergiant may well be the progenitor of the SN, although this identification is not entirely unambiguous due mainly to the distance to the host galaxy (NGC 4603), 33.3 Mpc. The progenitor candidate has a more yellow color than generally would be expected and, if a single star, would require that it explode…
There are a growing number of nearby SNe for which the progenitor star is detected in archival pre-explosion imaging. From these images it is possible to measure the progenitor's brightness a few years before explosion, and ultimately estimate its initial mass. Previous work has shown that II-P and II-L supernovae (SNe) have Red Supergiant (RSG) progenitors, and that the range of initial masses for these progenitors seems to be limited to $<$17M$_\odot$. This is in contrast with the cutoff of 25-30M$_\odot$ predicted by evolutionary models, a result which is termed the 'Red Supergiant Problem'…
Observations spanning a large wavelength range, from X-ray to radio, of the Type IIb supernova 2011hs are presented, covering its evolution during the first year after explosion. The optical light curve presents a narrower shape and a fainter luminosity at peak than previously observed for Type IIb SNe. High expansion velocities are measured from the broad absorption H I and He I lines. From the comparison of the bolometric light curve and the time evolution of the photospheric velocities with hydrodynamical models, we found that SN 2011hs is consistent with the explosion of a 3-4 Msun He-core…
We present the detection of the progenitor of the Type II SN 2011dh in archival pre-explosion Hubble Space Telescope images. Using post-explosion Adaptive Optics imaging with Gemini NIRI+ALTAIR, the position of the SN in the pre-explosion images was determined to within 23mas. The progenitor object was found to be consistent with a F8 supergiant star (log L/L_{\odot}=4.92+/-0.20 and T_{eff}=6000+/-280K). Through comparison with stellar evolution tracks, this corresponds to a single star at the end of core C-burning with an initial mass of M_{ZAMS}=13+/-3M_{\odot}. The possibility of the progen…
Cassiopeia A (Cas A) is one of the best studied young Galactic supernova remnants. While providing a rare opportunity to study in detail the remnant of a Type IIb supernova, questions remain regarding the nature of its progenitor, its mass-loss history, and its pre-SN evolution. Here we present an optical investigation of the circumstellar environment around Cas A and find clumpy and filamentary Halpha emission nebulosities concentrated 10-15 pc (10-15 arcminutes) to the north and east. First reported by Minkowski as a faint H II region, these nebulosities exhibit distinct morphological and sp…
By comparing the properties of Red Supergiant (RSG) supernova progenitors to those of field RSGs, it has been claimed that there is an absence of progenitors with luminosities $L$ above $\log(L/L_\odot) > 5.2$. This is in tension with the empirical upper luminosity limit of RSGs at $\log(L/L_\odot) = 5.5$, a result known as the `Red Supergiant Problem'. This has been interpreted as evidence for an upper mass threshold for the formation of black-holes. In this paper, we compare the observed luminosities of RSG SN progenitors with the observed RSG $L$-distribution in the Magellanic Clouds. Our r…
Physical Properties of 5,000 Cool LMC Supergiants with Gaia XP Spectra: A Detailed Portrait of the Upper HR Diagram Hints at Missing Supernova Progenitors
The distribution of stars in the Hertzsprung Russell diagram (HRD) for a stellar conglomeration represents a snapshot of its evolving stellar population. Some of the supergiant stars may transit the HRD from blue to red and then again to blue during their late evolutionary stages, as exemplified by the progenitor of SN 1987A. Others may transit a given part of the HRD more than twice in a "blue loop" and end up as red supergiants before they explode. Since stars in blue loops spend a considerable part of their lives there, these stages may change the relative number of modeled supergiants in t…
We have obtained early-time photometry and spectroscopy of Supernova (SN) 2013df in NGC 4414. The SN is clearly of Type IIb, with notable similarities to SN 1993J. From its luminosity at secondary maximum light, it appears that less $^{56}$Ni ($\lesssim 0.06\ M_{\odot}$) was synthesized in the SN 2013df explosion than was the case for the SNe IIb 1993J, 2008ax, and 2011dh. Based on a comparison of the light curves, the SN 2013df progenitor must have been more extended in radius prior to explosion than the progenitor of SN 1993J. The total extinction for SN 2013df is estimated to be $A_V=0.30$ …
A set of hydrodynamical models based on stellar evolutionary progenitors is used to study the nature of SN 2011dh. Our modeling suggests that a large progenitor star ---with R ~200 Rsun---, is needed to reproduce the early light curve of SN 2011dh. This is consistent with the suggestion that the yellow super-giant star detected at the location of the SN in deep pre-explosion images is the progenitor star. From the main peak of the bolometric light curve and expansion velocities we constrain the mass of the ejecta to be ~2 Msun, the explosion energy to be E= 6-10 x 10^50 erg, and the 56Ni mass …
Type IIb Supernova (SN) 2011dh, with conclusive detection of an unprecedented Yellow Supergiant (YSG) progenitor, provides an excellent opportunity to deepen our understanding on the massive star evolution in the final centuries toward the SN explosion. In this paper, we report on detection and analyses of thermal X-ray emission from SN IIb 2011dh at ~500 days after the explosion on Chandra archival data, providing a solidly derived mass loss rate of an YSG progenitor for the first time. We find that the circumstellar media (CSM) should be dense, more than that expected from a Wolf-Rayet (WR) …
The Red Supergiant Progenitor of the Type II Supernova 2024abfl
Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)（中国科学院云南天文台）；University of Chinese Academy of Sciences（中国科学院大学）；International Centre of Supernovae, Yunnan Key Laboratory（超新星国际中心，云南省重点实验室）；South-Western Institute for Astronomy Research, Yunnan University（云南大学西南天文研究所）
We present the results of a detailed, systematic stellar evolution study of binary mergers for blue supergiant (BSG) progenitors of Type II supernovae. In particular, these are the first evolutionary models that can simultaneously reproduce nearly all observational aspects of the progenitor of SN 1987A, $\text{Sk}-69\,^{\circ}202$, such as its position in the HR diagram, the enrichment of helium and nitrogen in the triple-ring nebula, and its lifetime before its explosion. The merger model, based on the one proposed by Podsiadlowski 1992 et al. and Podsiadlowski 2007 et al., consists of a main…
Since the discovery of SN (supernova) 1987A, the number of Type II-peculiar SNe has grown, revealing a rich diversity in photometric and spectroscopic properties. In this study, using a single 15Msun low-metallicity progenitor that dies as a blue supergiant (BSG), we have generated explosions with a range of energies and 56Ni masses. We then performed the radiative transfer modeling with CMFGEN from 1d until 300d after explosion. Our models yield light curves that rise to optical maximum in ~100d, with a similar brightening rate, and with a peak absolute V-band magnitude spanning from -14 to -…
We present Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations of the type IIb supernova (SN) 2016gkg at 652, 1698, and 1795 days with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) and Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). Comparing to pre-explosion imaging from 2001 obtained with the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2, we demonstrate that SN 2016gkg is now fainter than its candidate counterpart in the latest WFC3 imaging, implying that the counterpart has disappeared and confirming that it was the SN progenitor star. We show the latest light curve and Keck spectra of SN 2016gkg, which implies that SN 2016gkg is declining mor…
We present optical spectroscopy, ultraviolet to infrared imaging and X-ray observations of the intermediate luminosity optical transient (ILOT) SN 2010da in NGC 300 (d=1.86 Mpc) spanning from -6 to +6 years relative to the time of outburst in 2010. Based on the light curve and multi-epoch SEDs of SN 2010da, we conclude that the progenitor of SN 2010da is a ~10-12 Msol yellow supergiant possibly transitioning into a blue loop phase. During outburst, SN 2010da had a peak absolute magnitude of M<-10.4 mag, dimmer than other ILOTs and supernova impostors. We detect multi-component hydrogen Balmer,…
We conducted Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Snapshot observations of the Type IIb Supernova (SN) 2011dh in M51 at an age of ~641 days with the Wide Field Camera 3. We find that the yellow supergiant star, clearly detected in pre-SN HST images, has disappeared, implying that this star was almost certainly the progenitor of the SN. Interpretation of the early-time SN data which led to the inference of a compact nature for the progenitor, and to the expected survival of this yellow supergiant, is now clearly incorrect. We also present ground-based UBVRI light curves obtained with the Katzman Automa…
The `Red Supergiant Problem' describes the claim that the brightest Red Supergiant (RSG) progenitors to type II-P supernovae are significantly fainter than RSGs in the field. This mismatch has been interpreted by several authors as being a manifestation of the mass threshold for the production of black holes (BHs), such that stars with initial masses above a cutoff of $M_{\rm hi}=17$M$_\odot$ and below 25$M_\odot$ will die as RSGs, but with no visible SN explosion as the BH is formed. However, we have previously cautioned that this cutoff is more likely to be higher and has large uncertainties…
Recent stellar evolution models show consistently that very massive metal-free stars evolve into red supergiants shortly before they explode. We argue that the envelopes of these stars, which will form pair-instability supernovae, become pulsationally unstable and that this will lead to extreme mass-loss rates despite the tiny metal content of the envelopes. We investigate the pulsational properties of such models and derive pulsationally induced mass-loss rates, which take the damping effects of the mass loss on the pulsations selfconsistently into account. We find that the pulsations may ind…
Westerlund 1 is a young, massive Galactic starburst cluster that contains a rich coeval population of Wolf-Rayet stars, hot- and cool-phase transitional supergiants, and a magnetar. We use spectroscopic and photometric observations of the eclipsing double-lined binary W13 to derive dynamical masses for the two components, in order to determine limits for the progenitor masses of the magnetar CXOU J164710.2-455216 and the population of evolved stars in Wd1. W13 has an orbital period of 9.2709+/-0.0015 days and near-contact configuration. The shallow photometric eclipse rules out an inclination …
Recent studies on the temperatures of red supergiants (RSGs) in the local universe provide us with an excellent observational constraint on RSG models. We calibrate the mixing length parameter by comparing model predictions with the empirical RSG temperatures in Small and Large Magellanic Clouds, Milky Way, and M31, which are inferred from the TiO band and the spectral energy distribution (SED). Although our RSG models are computed with the MESA code, our result may be applied to other stellar evolution codes, including the BEC and TWIN codes. We find evidence that the mixing length increases …
The explosion energy and the ejecta mass of a type IIP supernova make up the basis for the theory of explosion mechanism. So far, these parameters have only been determined for seven events. Type IIP supernova 2008in is another well-observed event for which a detailed hydrodynamic modeling can be used to derive the supernova parameters. Hydrodynamic modeling was employed to describe the bolometric light curve and the expansion velocities at the photosphere level. A time-dependent model for hydrogen ionization and excitation was applied to model the Halpha and Hbeta line profiles. We found an e…
Fast yellow pulsating supergiants (FYPS) are a recently-discovered class of evolved massive pulsator. As candidate post-red supergiant objects, and one of the few classes of pulsating evolved massive stars, these objects have incredible potential to change our understanding of the structure and evolution of massive stars. Here we examine the lightcurves of a sample of 126 cool supergiants in the Magellanic Clouds observed by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (\tess~) in order to identify pulsating stars. After making quality cuts and filtering out contaminant objects, we examine the di…
Based on the work of Menon & Heger (2017), we present the bolometric light curvesand spectra of the explosions of blue supergiant progenitors from binary mergers. We study SN 1987A and two other peculiar Type IIP supernovae: SN 1998A and SN 2006V. The progenitor models were produced using the stellar evolution code Keplerand then exploded using the 1D radiation hydrodynamic code Crab. The explosions of binary merger models exhibit an overall better fit to the light curve of SN 1987A than previous single star models, because of their lower helium-core masses, larger envelope masses, and smaller…
The post main-sequence evolution of massive stars is very sensitive to many parameters of the stellar models. Key parameters are the mixing processes, the metallicity, the mass-loss rate and the effect of a close companion. We study how the red supergiant lifetimes, the tracks in the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram (HRD), the positions in this diagram of the pre-supernova progenitor as well as the structure of the stars at that time change for various mass-loss rates during the red supergiant phase (RSG), and for two different initial rotation velocities. The surface abundances of RSGs are much mor…
We introduce the first synthetic light-curve model set of Type IIP supernovae exploded within circumstellar media in which the acceleration of the red supergiant winds is taken into account. Because wind acceleration makes the wind velocities near the progenitors low, the density of the immediate vicinity of the red supergiant supernova progenitors can be higher than that extrapolated by using a constant terminal wind velocity. Therefore, even if the mass-loss rate of the progenitor is relatively low, it can have a dense circumstellar medium at the immediate stellar vicinity and the early ligh…
Type IIb supernovae are believed to originate from core-collapse progenitors having kept only a very thin hydrogen envelope. We aim to explore how some physical factors, such as rotation, metallicity, overshooting, and the initial orbital period in binaries, significantly affect the Roche lobe overflow and the formation of type IIb supernovae. It is found that binaries are the main channel that capable of producing type typeIIb supernovae progenitors in the mass range for initial masses below 20 $M_{\odot}$. The formation of type IIb supernova progenitors is extremely sensitive to the initial …
Luminous Red Novae (LRNe) are astrophysical transients associated with the partial ejection of a binary system's common envelope (CE) shortly before its merger. Here we present the results of our photometric and spectroscopic follow-up campaign of AT2018bwo (DLT18x), a LRN discovered in NGC45, and investigate its progenitor system using binary stellar-evolution models. The transient reached a peak magnitude of $M_r=-10.97\pm0.11$ and maintained this brightness during its optical plateau of $t_p = 41\pm5$days. During this phase, it showed a rather stable photospheric temperature of ~3300K and a…
Extensive archival \textit{Hubble Space Telescope}, \textit{Spitzer Space Telescope}, and Large Binocular Telescope imaging of the recent intermediate-luminosity transient, AT~2019krl in M74, reveal a bright optical and mid-infrared progenitor star. While the optical peak of the event was missed, a peak was detected in the infrared with an absolute magnitude of $M_{4.5\,μ{\rm m}} = -18.4$ mag, leading us to infer a visual-wavelength peak absolute magnitude of $-$13.5 to $-$14.5. The pre-discovery light curve indicated no outbursts over the previous 16\,yr. The colors, magnitudes, and inferred …
Recent supernova and transient surveys have revealed an increasing number of non-terminal stellar eruptions. Though the progenitor class of these eruptions includes the most luminous stars, little is known of the pre-supernova mechanics of massive stars in their most evolved state, thus motivating a census of possible progenitors. From surveys of evolved and unstable luminous star populations in nearby galaxies, we select a sample of yellow and red supergiant candidates in M31 and M33 for review of their spectral characteristics and spectral energy distributions. Since the position of intermed…
SN 2023ixf in Messier 101: Photo-ionization of Dense, Close-in Circumstellar Material in a Nearby Type II Supernova
University of California, Berkeley（加州大学伯克利分校）；Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, CNRS-Sorbonne Université（巴黎天体物理学研究所，法国国家科学研究中心-索邦大学）；University of California, Santa Cruz（加州大学圣克鲁兹分校）；Northwestern University（西北大学）；Gemini Observatory, NSF’s NOIRLab（吉米尼天文台，美国国家光学红外天文研究实验室）
Common-envelope (CE) evolution in massive binary systems is thought to be one of the most promising channels for the formation of compact binary mergers. In the case of merging binary black holes (BBHs), the essential CE phase takes place at a stage when the first BH is already formed and the companion star expands as a supergiant. We study which BH binaries with supergiant companions will evolve through and potentially survive a CE phase. To this end, we compute envelope binding energies from detailed massive stellar models at different evolutionary stages and metallicities. We make multiple …
